Abstract
The expansion of the Seleucid realm in the east and its need to dominate the Iranian people led to the creation of pro-Greek bases by forcing its Greek-Macedonian subjects to emigrate into the eastern lands. The construction of new colonies along the eastern trade routes and their politico-economic performance strengthened the Seleucid rule and made it more enduring than the Macedonian empire of Alexander the Macedonian. The existence of Hellenistic colonies in Central Asia led to the sending of large numbers of Greek-Macedonian immigrants to the region, which themselves opened a new window on Eastern-Western trade. Based on the archeological data and historical texts and using the descriptive-analytical method, the present article intends to clarify the nature of Seleucid urban planning and the difference between colonies and poleis. Then it will explain the reasons for the creation and function of colonies in Central Asia and the Iranian plateau. Since the focus of previous research has been more on how to build and rebuild Seleucid cities in Syria and Asia Minor, the present study seeks to focus on the question of why the Seleucids intended to build different colonies and cities. The research hypothesis is that the Seleucids, in addition to their military use of these cities, also considered their economic use, especially when one can see that these colonies, which later became large cities, were located along the eastern trade routes, which played an economic role. 
Keywords: Seleucids, Urbanism, Polis, Colony.

Introduction
During the rule, the Seleucids ruled over a wide range of civilized lands in the ancient East, and in the broadest sense, they controlled the borders between Polis and Syria. They established colonies and Polis to gain more control over their open lands and to build popular bases in these lands to strengthen their power bases in the lands that previously belonged to the Achaemenids. Formating. the idea of colonizing and creating barracks, there is a legacy of Alexander the Great during the time of his conquests, which was the import of digital and social construction of the liberated lands. The arrival of Ionian-Macedonian immigrants in the area between Mesopotamia and the ancient East was a turning point in the culture and civilization of Hellenism during its lifetime. In a way, the center of gravity of the Hellenistic base is transferred from the west of the ancient world to the eastern part, and until the last days of the life of the Hellenistic empires in Syria and Egypt, it is necessary to try to survive.
The active presence of the Polis in the rise to power or overthrow of the Parthian emperor’s Citizenship or disobedience to the commanders of the Roman civil war and the Polis and then their lives in the time after the most important Seleucid heritage in the east of the budget. Therefore, the present study aims to first clarify the nature of colonies and Polis and then answer a few questions about them. Among the policies of colonization and urban planning (Polis) in the Seleucid Empire, have they been carried out on a planned basis or not? Has the Khorasan road been a clear trajectory for the establishment of a colony? Did the location of the colonies and the Polis play a role in the creation of trade roads in later periods?

Conclusion
The Seleucid emperors faced many problems during their lifetime, including the heterogeneity of tribes in the vast geographical region of their rule. An important part of the protests and revolts against this non-Iranian dynasty was the non-indigenousness of these people. Although Seleucus the 1st  tried to eliminate this position of the Iranian tribes towards himself by choosing Antiochus I, an Iranian mother, as his successor, but as we have seen, he did not succeed much. The Seleucid emperors found a way out of this situation by establishing popular bases within their lands. He took the first step to legitimize himself by establishing colonies and migrating the Greek-Macedonian population to these places throughout his lands. The Seleucids, with a clear understanding of the position of the colonies from a Geo-political and Geo-economic point of view (Geo-economics) in the lands under their control, sought to strengthen and expand some of these colonies to establish stronger bases for themselves in Although in some places, such as Central Asia, the weakening of the Seleucid government was accompanied by the declaration of independence of the Central Asian Polis from the Seleucid Empire, in some areas the Seleucids had better control over those areas. The Polis and Polis remained under their yoke, although with the collapse of the Seleucid regime in Iran, the colonies gradually dismantled or became a small town, for many years the Hellenistic Polis played a key role in Iranian politics. Thus, the undeniable role of the colonization policy in the ups and downs of the Seleucid government can be considered and it was concluded that with the decline of the importance and credibility of the colony, the Seleucid government lost its strategic base and the rhythm ended. The lifespan of this dynasty intensified.
 

Abstract
Using laboratory of XRD & XRF, this research project was performed to identify the component of the pottery related to Seleucid/ early Parthian period. In excavations performed in western Iran, a number of Seleucid & Parthian site were identified, regarding shape and technical formatting roughly homogenous pottery pieces were found. It could not exactly be determined how many of the discovered pottery pieces of the Seleucid/ Parthian period’s -whether found from surface or stratigraphy excavations- had a regional origin. Determining their homogeneity which was solely based on external similarities and typology has given rise to possibilities of widespread trading of pottery or major centers of production. The main problems in research include How was the selection of consumables for the production of stained glassware in western Iran in two periods of Seleucid and Parthian? How can one know about the similarity and difference between the soil elements and the percentage of pottery and logic soil, whether they are indigenous or imported? Despite the apparent similarities, is the conditions and technique of pottery baking types in the western region in two periods, or has it changed with the evolution of governance in the fabric of pottery? This research is qualitative and has a descriptive-analytical nature. The research method in this paper is a combination of archaeological field activities, laboratory studies, and librarian compilation. Awareness of the explorations carried out in the Seleucid-Parthian sites of the western part of Iran, as well as mineralogical studies based on library information. However, as no archaeological evidence has been found to indicate the existence of such centers, such hypotheses could not be considered. The XRD & XRF methods were used to study the building elements in the excavated pottery samples. Using these methods, the similarities and differences between the clay used in making Seleucid & Parthian period’s pottery and the clay found in the region were studied. Ten sample pieces collected from Delfan, Alashtar, and Nahavand regions, were studies. The samples were selected from archaeological site of Chogha Taghi, Pat-Koole, Zarin Deh Sefid tepe, Hassanabad Sanjabi, Cheshme-Kaboud tepe, Aliabad, Molaghala Adlabad, Shaelie (Shahian), and Laodicea. The 10-pottery sherd often have a bright red peppermint, a dense bubbled glaze, a soft mineral mixture, and geometric paintings and images of birds and animals that are painted in brown and black. The shape of the dishes often shows small bowls and small cups that are well polished and polished and cooked at a proper temperature. However, as these methods usually because a great damage and in most cases destroy the samples, smaller and less important pieces which had these componential characteristics were used. The results of this study indicates that, matching the raw materials of the pottery with the geological structure of the region, it can be noted that the pottery was produced in the studied area. Also, the type, technique, and their baking technique from pottery are similar to each other and confirm that its local production and it dismisses the change in the production process or the non-localization of the production of clay crowns during the Seleucid period.. 
Keywords: Seleucid Period’s, Parthian Period’s, Pottery, XRD, XRF, Western Iran.

Introduction
Our recognition of the western Iran Seleucid/ early Parthian painted pottery is so little in limited due to so many various reasons. The potteries as such are painted and fragile and belong to Seleucid era and early Parthian period party in the period in question is an outstanding type which sounds unobtainable or minimally scarce in considerations. The pieces as such mostly attain light red and beige natural disposition, light rose-colored mantle painted like similar to the metal, fine mineral allegation, geometrical paintings, and animals in birds’ pictures being drawn ocher brown and black. The Potteries shape almost always indicates soft, ting bowls and cups the surface of which is well polished well-furnished and baked in a convenient temperature. The external similitude between late Seleucid and early Parthian potteries nourishes the persisting thought of such a tradition from Seleucid to Parthian. This research is to examining the recognition of the absence/presence of the production and business tradition of the Western Iran area in Seleucid/ early Parthian era. Therefore, using XRF and XRD methods, attempts have been made to deal with the identification of the compounds and elements used in grain utilized conforming western Iran painted pottery.
The propounded hypothesis in this regard is that they did discovered pottery type/species in the west area is possibly none native and imported. The native inference or pottery’s being imported deeply depends upon its natural disposition minerals compound similitude percentage with the minerals present in the area’s soil. In line whit this debate, three questions are replied:
1- How much similar to and different from one another are the soil elements used in Seleucid/ early Parthian painted potteries, compounds, being discovered excavated from some of the Iran Zones? 2- How homogeneous are the elements, present in texture and composition of Seleucid/ early Parthian painted potteries -being discovered in the west of Iran-, whit the structure elements and area geology zone? 3- Are these potteries similar to/different from one another in terms of composition, elements type, and baking conditions?
The selected samples of this research are prominent pieces which are picked up from three areas of Delfan, Alashtar, and Nahavand on ten of which laboratory experiments have been implemented. Among these prominent samples the option of each environment has been done. The XRF experiment on powdered samples has been done in Tarbiat Modarres university and XRD experiment has been implemented in Hamedan Bu-Ali Sina University physics lab, Tehran. These potteries are named as follows: Samples number 1(L.CH.T) from Chogha Taghi in Noor Abad City; sample number 2 (L.P.K) from Pat-koole; sample number 3 (L.Z.D) from Zarrin Deh Sefid tepe; sample number 4 (L.H.A.S) from Hassanabad Sanjabi; sample number 5 (L.CH.K) from Cheshme-Kaboud tepe; sample number 6 (L.A.A) from northern district of Noor Abad city; sample 7 (L.M.GH) from Adl-Abad village; sample number 8 (L.SH) from village Shaeile in Qalaei City; sample numbers 9 & 10 (H.N.L.1) & (H.N.L.2) from Loudich of Nahavand. 

Discussion
The results show that the silicon (oxide) rate is high in the samples obtaining low calcite (like sample number 9, and in the samples with high calcite, the silica (oxide) rate is low. Regarding the composition’s present in potteries body, making use of XRD and XRF methods, it can be inferred that the samples productions are associated with the area itself. Moreover, it can be stated that there are compounds such as Quartz in all soils, which is one of components of soil. There is calcite in all samples because of the presence of the calcareous sediments’ presence. The presence of the calcium carbonate and diopside in the potteries body indicates that the temperature of these potteries is less than 750 degrees centigrade. Three compounds of Aluminum oxide, Silica in Calcium carbonate (SiO2, Al2O3, Cao). Additionally, the percentage of the scarce elements in sample number 3 is different from the other ones. Except for these two, it seems that all of the samples are more or less similar to one another. The pottery’s body color is due to this element (Iron) and its oxidation, and red patterns upon potteries contain Iron as well. Pondering upon most of the painted potteries samples of early Parthian / Seleucid era from  Western Iran, it seems that their color is not that beige in comparison with the Clinker pottery type from Parthian era, which are mostly related to the middle and late of this era, and less homogeneity is observed in their color in comparison white Clinker pottery. These results assert that the production of Seleucid/ early Parthian period painted pottery in comparison with Parthian period Clinker pottery should be considered from a different or perspective. There is Manganese in some of the samples number (7 & 9 and little rate in sample 3) the black color of which possibly contain such an element. The presence of Calcium can be because of the calcareous sediments (probably) or some gypsum in the sample. The presence of sediment on all of the samples stems from burial area, moisture, and its omission then, and formation of calcareous sediments as well. The other elements such as Sodium, Potassium Phosphorus, and Titanium are among the ones present in the soil, the rate of which is from some percentage to a few hundred percent.

Conclusion 
The results of XRF & XRD analysis show that the major part of the examined potteries samples including three compounds of Aluminum oxide, Silica in Calcium carbonate (CaO, Al2O3, SiO2). This compound indicates that there is a share of the soils of the transformations stones (SiO2) in the soil used in building mentioned potteries in addition to calcareous soils (Al2O3, CaO). There is Manganese in some of samples (number7, 9, and a little rate in number 3 simple) which possibly has been because of the pigments usage for decorating the potteries patterns. Moreover, the existence of calcium can be possibly due to calcareous sediments or some plaster in the sample which implies the presence of sediment on all of the samples because of the burial area moisture, and then it’s elimination and calcareous sediments formation. The results demonstrate that the Seleucid/ early Parthian period painted potteries obtain more silica (oxide) rate in comparison with Parthian period Clinker pottery (the late and middle of this period), bring analyzed in western Iran, and also it attains a lower Calcite rate in comparison with Clinker potteries type. According to the potteries external features in terms of color and patterns, the similarity between- the ingredients of raw material (soil) is obvious in making pottery, indicating the production of the Portway in research area of although these painted  potteries of Seleucid often there is less homogeneity in their color in western Iran; and also, their baking technique and mode from pottery are similar with one another, and improve their native and domestic production (it is worth mentioning that there has no analysis regarding  Seleucid/ Parthian period painted pottery in the other areas been done) and it eliminates the issue of importing production of  Seleucid/  early Parthian period painted potteries. 

Abstract
The primary questions of this research include the chronological and stratigraphic situation, the cultural material features, and the cultural interactions of the Tape Gohareh with other contemporary sites in the Central Zagros region. Based on preliminary evidence and surface findings, it appears that the Tape Gohareh contains continuous settlements from the Seleucid to the Parthian periods. The characteristic pottery of these periods includes painted, glazed, kiln-fired, and plain pottery. The study of these findings, along with other cultural artifacts from the site, indicates a cultural homogeneity between this mound and other contemporary sites in the region. This research aims to analyze the historical and cultural status of the Tape Gohareh and its connections with other contemporary cultural centers in the Bagestan region and Central Zagros. The research methodology was based on field methods and documentary analysis, where the former involved archaeological excavations documenting the deposits and cultural findings, while the latter included historical sources, books, published articles, and excavation reports. The results indicate the existence of an ancient site from the Seleucid and Parthian periods in the Bisotun and Central Zagros region. Studies on the social structure and livelihood patterns of the Tape Gohareh communities suggest that livestock farming, hunting, and possibly agriculture, along with other social activities such as weaving, spinning, and pottery-making, were common in these societies. Architectural remains from various phases of settlement, as well as characteristic pottery—such as painted, glazed, kiln-fired, and plain pottery—were among the significant cultural findings. The analysis of these artifacts highlights the cultural homogeneity of the Tape Gohareh with other prominent Central Zagros sites such as the Parthian slopes of Bisotun, Sorkh Dom-e-Laki Kuhdasht, Laodicea of Nahavand, Ecbatana and Sang-e-Shir Hamedan, Anahita of Kangavar, and Khurheh.
Keywords: Central Zagros, Bisotun, Tape Gohareh, Seleucid, Parthian.

Introduction
The ancient site of Tape Gohareh is located in the province of Kermanshah, within the region of Bisotun (ancient Bagistana). Situated in a mountain valley overlooking the Chamchamal plain, it lies approximately 4.5 km from the historic remains of Bisotun, adjacent to the northern side of the village of Gohareh (Map. 1 & Fig. 1). Bagistana, or modern Bistun, was one of the important regions of Central Zagros in antiquity, and is mentioned by Isidore in the first century AD as a Parthian city (Schoff, 1914). Despite numerous activities and research conducted in Bisotun and the Central Zagros region in recent years, our understanding of certain historical periods, such as the Seleucid and Parthian eras, remains limited. Given the significant political and historical influence of the Seleucids in the Central Zagros during the third and second centuries BC, only a few sites, such as Laodicea (Rahbar & Alibaigi, 2011), Ecbatana (Azarnoush, 2007), and Sorkh Dom Laki (Shishegar, 2005), as well as scattered artifacts such as the statue of Heracles (Bernard, 1980), an Ionic column base in Bistun (Lushe, 2006), stone vessels and a broken stone basin from Dinavar (Ghirshman, 1971), the Kermanshah Greek inscription (Robert, 1967), a capital discovered in Shiyan, a Greek inscription in Eslamabad (Alibaigi et al., 2020), and the Daya Cave in Sarpol-e Zahab (Alibaigi et al., 2023), have provided us with insights. In this light, archaeological research and excavation of the Tape Gohareh at Bisotun, a site with cultural remains spanning the Seleucid to Parthian periods, could be a valuable endeavor in understanding the region’s historical and cultural developments during these eras. The key questions of this research are: What is the stratigraphic and chronological sequence of the site? What are the characteristics of the cultural materials from the Seleucid and Parthian periods found at Tape Gohareh, and based on the existing cultural artifacts, what level of interaction did this site have with other contemporaneous regional sites? Moreover, what was the social and cultural status of Tape Gohareh in the region during the Seleucid and Parthian periods?
It appears that Tape Gohareh was continuously inhabited from the Seleucid through the Parthian periods. The cultural remains of this era include notable decorated, glazed, clink, and plain pottery. The study of these finds, along with other cultural materials from the site, suggests a cultural affinity with other contemporaneous sites in the Central Zagros region. The research on the social structure and livelihood patterns of the communities of Tape Gohareh indicates a prevalence of pastoralism, hunting, and possibly agriculture, as well as other social activities such as weaving/spinning and pottery-making.

Discussion 
Excavations at Tape Gohareh revealed two trenches, Trench 1 (10×5 meters) and Trench 2 (3×2 meters), which uncovered cultural remains including architectural structures, pottery, decorative stones, glass artifacts, storage jars, pestles and mortars, metal objects, evidence of pottery-making activities, and the bones of both domestic and wild animals, as well as an Islamic-period cemetery.
The architectural remains consist of five distinct phases from the Seleucid and Parthian periods (Fig. 2, 3 & 4). The first phase includes a floor made of plaster or lime mixed with gravel. A 20 cm layer of ash above this floor in both trenches suggests the possibility of a widespread fire, marking the end of Phase 1 habitation. The site was reused in Phases 2 and 3, with more extensive and higher-quality architectural features compared to later phases. It is likely that these communities had a higher social and economic status compared to the societies of Phases 4 and 5. Phase 4 saw a decrease in architectural construction, and Phase 5 shows more significant construction activities, although only stone foundations of the walls remain. Phases 1 to 3 likely date to the Seleucid period, spanning roughly from the mid-3rd century to the mid-2nd century BC. For Phases 4 and 5, a middle Parthian date is suggested. Additionally, excavations uncovered 20 graves from an Islamic-period cemetery. The animal bone remains from the site indicate the presence of domesticated herbivores (cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and donkeys), wild herbivores (boars), and carnivores (dogs). The economic structure of the Tape Gohareh communities seems to have been based on pastoralism, with the highest frequency of animal use being sheep (30%), followed by boar (22.5%), cattle, goats, and horses (15% each), and donkeys and dogs (2.5% each) (Chart. 1). 
The site’s pottery is classified into four groups (Fig. 8, 9, 10 & 11): plain, decorated, clinky, and glazed. The plain pottery from both the Seleucid and Parthian periods shows similar forms, with no significant differences in shape. However, finely decorated pottery is characteristic of the Seleucid period at Tape Gohareh. These decorated pottery pieces were not found in Parthian layers and likely date to the mid/late 3rd century to the mid-2nd century BC. Two decorated pottery fragments were recovered from Parthian layers, but the quality of their craftsmanship was inferior. The earliest glazed pottery pieces at the site likely date from the late 3rd century to the mid-2nd century BC. Clinky pottery fragments were found in cultural layers likely dating from the late 3rd century to the 1st century BC. Pottery traditions at Tape Gohareh show a cultural affinity with other Central Zagros sites. These pottery pieces can be compared to finds from the Parthian Bisotun slopes, Kangavar, Sorkh Dom Laki, Laodicea of Nahavand, Ecbatana, and the Sang-e Shir of Hamedan, as well as from Khurha Central (Kleiss, 2007; Kambakhshfard, 1995; Shishegar, 2005; Rahbar & Alibaigi, 2011; Azarnoush, 2007; Afshari & Naqshineh, 2014; Rahbar, 2003). Additionally, in some cases, comparisons can be drawn with sites such as Ghale Yazdgerd (Khosrowzadeh et al., 2021), Nushijan (Stronach, 1974), and extra-regional sites such as the Elhaei site in Khuzestan, Susa, Pasargadae (Sharifi, 2005; Haerinck, 1997; Stronach, 1997), Failaka Island in Kuwait (Hannestad, 1983), and the Uruk site (Petrie, 2002).

Conclusion
The findings from the cultural excavations at Tepe Gohareh suggest three distinct phases of settlement, beginning with the Seleucid period from around the mid-3rd century to the mid-2nd century BCE. Following this period, a relatively small settlement from the Middle Parthian era developed on the site, and then, possibly towards the end of the Parthian period, a larger settlement emerged. After this phase, the site was abandoned, and eventually, a cemetery was established on it during the early Islamic period.
An examination of the social and economic structures of the site reveals that the communities of Tepe Gohar followed a consistent subsistence pattern throughout the settlement phases, primarily involving livestock farming, hunting, and possibly agriculture. The discovery of cultural artifacts such as mortars, spinning whorls, slag, and discarded pottery suggests other societal activities, including agriculture, weaving/spinning, and pottery production. Additionally, items related to personal hygiene, cosmetics, and adornment—like small glass vessels and decorative stone beads—were also found.
Among the most significant finds were distinctive pottery pieces from the Seleucid and Parthian periods. The analysis of these finds indicates that Tepe Gohareh shares a cultural homogeneity with nearby sites in Central Zagros, such as the Parthian terrace at Bisotun, the Anahita Temple in Kangavar, the Sorkh Dom Lakki of Kuhdasht, Laodicea of Nahavand, Ecbatana, and Sang-e Shir in Hamadan, Khorheh, and in some cases, with Nushijan and Ghale Yazdgerd. Although some pottery pieces resemble those found at sites such as Pasargadae, the Elhaei site, Susa, or the island of Failaka in Kuwait, and Seleucid-era Uruk, the cultural similarities are not significant enough to confidently discuss a broader regional connection.