Abstract
This research intends to investigate, describe, and analyze architectural decorations by focusing on Kashan Tabrizi Mosque during the Qajar Period. The data was collected based on field and library (documentary) studies and interpreted through a comparative descriptive-analytical method. This research has been conducted to identify and classify the main motifs and themes of the architectural decorations of the Kashan Tabrizi Mosque, including buildings that belonged to the early Qajar period, and to compare with the Sepah Salar School Mosque of the middle of the Qajar monarchy in the center of their rule. There were two main questions: What are the architectural decorations of the Tabrizi Mosque in terms of decoration and themes? and what are its differences and similarities with the Sepah Salar School Mosque? The results indicate that the Sepah Salar Mosque-School in Tehran was built by a person who had an outstanding position in terms of political and social rank; thus, it has a more decorations compared to the Kashan Tabrizi Mosque. The architectural decorations for Kashan Tabrizi Mosque include tiling, carving, inscriptions, wall paintings, and plaster-molding, following the decorations of the earlier traditional architecture. The main religious motifs employed in the mosque include plant and geometric motifs that have been accomplished in the form of painting and tiling techniques.
Keywords: Tabrizi Mosque Kashan, Sepah Salar Mosque-School Tehran, Architectural Decorations, Qajar Period.

Introduction
During the Qajar period, many mosques were built in Iranian cities, including the Tabrizi Mosque in Kashan, one of the religious buildings of the Qajar period, about which no comprehensive research has been done. Accordingly, in this study, we examine one of the religious buildings that a businessman from Kashan built during the first years of the reign of Fath Ali Shah. Meanwhile, Sepah Salar Mosque-School (Shahid Motahari) in Tehran was built in the second period of Qajar architecture (Mohammad Shah and Nasser al-Din Shah) or other words, in the middle of the Qajar dynasty (Zarei, 2017: 424). During the time that Tehran, in particular, were affected by the urban development of Paris, and Western elements (such as the Clock Tower, the Pit, etc.) can be detected in the city, and especially in the Sepah Salar School Mosque (such as Gol Farangi), while there are no signs and such elements in Kashan Tabrizi Mosque.
Research Methodology: The data was collected using the field method and library research (documentary) using written sources. This research has been conducted in the descriptive-analytical method, and subsequently, the main motifs and themes of the decorations associated with the architecture of the mentioned mosques were recognized and classified based on the attributed tables.

Introducing Kashan Tabrizi Mosque
Tabrizi Mosque is located in Bab-ul-Hawaij Street and the historical context of Kashan Bazaar/Market, near the Mian Chal Safavid Mosque-School. This mosque was built in a unique location, and one of the entrances of Kashan Bazaar/Market passes through this place and Malek bazarche, built by Haj Mohammad Hussein Tabrizi, one of the merchants from Kashan.

Analyzing and Comparing the Decorative Arrays of Kashan Tabrizi Mosque
A set of cultural developments and new sciences were formed in the West, including the invention and presentation of photography, and the extensive application of stamps in postal items. These developments affected the decorations of the mosques of the Qajar Period so that the natural scenes of architecture, flower and vase designs, particularly roses and lilies in the designs and decorations of tiles and carvings have been applied in these buildings (Sajjadzadeh et al., 2017: 227). The inscriptions were as important as in the previous period, and mainly the chirography of Qajar inscriptions is in two types: Thuluth and Nastaliq, Quranic inscriptions and narrations have been written in the Thuluth and narrative phrases or history and poems have been written in the Nastaliq (Husseini and Ahmadzadeh, 2017: 72). The decorative motifs of the Tabrizi Mosque can be generally divided into two classes: plant motifs, geometric motifs, and the type of inscription scripts, and each one has different components.
1. Plant motifs include: a) Arabesque traceries/motifs b) Khatai flowers (Lotus motif with buds and leaves) c) Flower and plant motifs; 2. Geometric motifs include: a) embroidery b) rhombus motifs c) star-shaped motifs d) Mogharnas /decorated with paintings; 3. the type of inscription scripts including a) Thuluth b) Nastaliq c) Naskh.
A) Tile decorations: Tile decorations have been performed in the Kashan Tabrizi Mosque in the form of seven-color and mosaic techniques. Motifs are geometric and plant, but tiles have been extensively used in the form of seven-color, Bannai, and mosaic techniques, along with the various natural, geometric, animal, religious, and western themes in Sepah Salar School - Mosque. But, except for plant and geometric themes, no other motifs have been used in the Tabrizi mosque.
B) Carving decorations: The carving in Tabrizi Mosque is in the form of spiral columns, the base of the vase around the crescent of the altar of the nave, and the cypress motif on the side dado of the entrance of the mosque. Foreign decorations in the form of flower and vase designs have been performed naturally in the carving of Sepah Salar Mosque-School.
C) Inscription decorations: The inscriptions applied in Tabrizi mosque include the Thuluth, Naskh, and Nastaliq scripts, which the Thuluth has been used for writing in the inscriptions of the porch and the altar of the mosque, the Naskh has been used for writing the four-pillar inscriptions of the nave column, and the Nastaliq has been used for short phrases on the walls of the nave and on the inscription on the seven-colored tile at the entrance of the mosque, and all of their themes are Quran verses, hadiths, and divine names. The Nastaliq scripts of Tabrizi Mosque are simple and frequently have no decorations and have been performed in rectangular frames. The inscriptions have more variety and themes in Sepah Salar Mosque-School and include verses of the Holy Quran, hadiths, divine names, founders, calligraphers, tilers, architects, sculptors along with the materials of history, which have been used Naskh, Kufi, Thuluth, and Nastaliq scripts for writing.
D) Plaster-molding decorations: The plaster-molding / Stucco of Tabrizi Mosque has been used to construct the decorative moqarnas in front of the mosque altar entrance and the construction and writing of inscriptions on the entrance and porch of the mosque. Stucco /plaster has been used in abundance in decorating and writing inscriptions and plant motifs, including stucco flowers and vases in Sepah Salar Mosque-School.

Conclusion
Architects have always considered the most important mosque as the most important religious building of a city and a religious, political, and social focus. Examining the architectural arrays related to the architecture of Tabrizi Mosque and comparing them with the arrays of Sepah Salar School Mosque in Tehran as the Qajar capital, as well as analyzing their structural and decorative features, indicate a combination of Iranian and Western elements. There are many rooms built around the courtyard for summer, but the winter naves here are not comparable to the Sepah Salar School Mosque in Tehran, which was built for high-ranking government officials in the form of four porches, tall domes, and minarets, and is so glorious. This small mosque is built as a summer and winter nave on two floors. Kashan Tabrizi Mosque includes tile decorations, inlays, inscriptions, murals, and plastering to write inscriptions in terms of decorations and follows the art and decorations related to the traditional architecture of the previous periods as this mosque was built in the early period Qajar in 1212 AH and many natural themes can be seen in its decorative elements, as it can be considered the only building in which there are weak influences of Western culture. Tehran Sepah Salar School-Mosque was built in 1296 AH and its decorations and decorative motifs originated from traditional and western architecture. In such a way that western elements such as architectural landscaping have been used as a house or church, in contrast to which there were no western elements in the Tabrizi Mosque of Kashan.

Abstract
The architecture of the Qajar period due to being in the transition from traditionalism to modernity has special features and this issue makes it important and attractive to study, also the evolution of buildings in this period due to changes in architectural culture and urban life is very important. The influences of various other factors such as climate, cultural relations, the influence of Western architecture, etc., and has had a remarkable effect on the formation of the architecture of Tehran’s palaces. In this study, in addition to studying the above factors in the field of differences, especially in how the architectural effects of each era, its evolution in each period is also examined. In this regard, the present study examines the architecture of palaces of each period of the Qajar kings and examines the process of its changes and compares their differences and similarities in terms of architectural style. In this study, in order to understand why and how. The achievement of architects in this specific pattern and the degree of influence of past techniques and the impact of Western architecture on the architecture of this period are presented. The most important buildings of this period have been studied by field observation and library studies and previous researches by descriptive-analytical and comparative research methods, and the differences and commonalities of each of them have been evaluated. Considering that no significant research has been done on Tehran palaces and Qajar period architecture from the point of view of stylistics and their characteristics, this article can cover the existing research gap to some extent by recognizing the factors and the formation of palaces architecture. The findings of this study show that despite some influences of Western architecture in this period, the architecture of this period is still based on the basic principles of Iranian-Islamic architecture such as the principle of introversion, privacy and... 
Keywords: Qajar Period, Tehran Palaces, Golestan Palace, Aristocratic Mansions.

Introduction
The formation of architecture of the Qajar period can be divided into two time stages. Safavid period architecture and Isfahan style and the second part are integrated and taken from the architectural style of the second half of the 18th and 19th centuries. Maghrib is the earth, this style entered the architecture of Iran as a symbol of modernity and strongly influenced the architecture of Iran (Rezaei Nabi and Salehi Tabrizi, 2012: 6). Of course, this effect is much greater in the last years of the Qajar period than in the early years. In fact, the reign of the last Qajar king can be considered completely different from previous periods. Some historians consider this period as a mere imitation of Western architectural style (Talebzadeh, 2007: 14). Others, however, believe that the self-critical view resulting from the defeat in the Iran-Russia wars caused transformational tendencies to form in Iranian society during the Qajar period, and that the different Qajar architecture is the product of this idealistic approach. This can be attributed to the lack of importance to the tradition and original identity of the past in this period, and socially, the class gap between sections of society has increased and also political relations with Western countries caused the affluent strata of society after traveling to Western countries with what. They chose Western architecture and used it in their mansions (Saremi and Radmard, 1997: 143) and because the information was transmitted through the minds of these people, it was similar to the same building - with local and experimental materials and technology. And not scientific - they built, which often formed a fusion of traditional and Western architecture.
Objectives and necessity of research: Our purpose in this article is to examine the historical maps and documents and the results of field research, the formation and changes over time on the palaces of this period. In this research, the process of formation and evolution of Qajar period architecture and the influence of Western architecture on it are studied. The necessity of such research can be expressed in the physical analysis and typology of palaces of this period.
Research Questions and Hypotheses: Considering the fact that the establishment of the Tehran Government Citadel coincides with the capitalization of this city and the construction of the Nasserite fence, the main question is how the palaces of the Qajar period were formed and evolved? The present study seeks to understand why and how architects achieve this specific pattern and be influenced by past techniques and Western neoclassical style, as well as how they relate to each other and their similarities.
Research Methodology: The research method is based on the purpose of basic research, the research method is descriptive-analytical and comparative, the subject matter is obtained using the basic and basic data required through field studies. In order to compare and contrast the simultaneous data, the method of data collection has been done in a library manner and by comparing and analyzing them, it has come to a conclusion.

Background Research
In terms of the background and thematic background of the research, it should be acknowledged that fortunately in the field of architecture of the Qajar period and especially Golestan Palace, extensive research and studies have been conducted by several researchers, the most important of which are in the form of two thematic axes. They include general architectural studies of the Qajar period as well as studies on the architecture of Qajar royal mansions, some of which are mentioned below. One of these researches can be found in the book History of Construction.

Conclusion
In the traditional architecture of Iran, one point has always been considered by architects and that is the observance of interior and exterior spaces in architecture. From ancient times, Iranians were more spiritually and emotionally compatible than indoor and outdoor spaces to modern spaces. These elements and patterns were observed and preserved in Iranian architecture during the Safavid, Zandi and the first years of Qajar rule.
Certainly, architecture changes in each period in accordance with the lifestyle of human beings in each country. From the middle of the Qajar period, with the change of intellectual resources and ideas governing the society and also being aware of the developments, different needs were felt than in the past. These needs did not develop much at first and were more prominent among the courtiers and the affluent classes. They considered responding to these needs and the solution in modeling Western methods. The establishment of the Academy of Arts, sending students to Europe, hiring foreign teachers and publishing newspapers changed the social and political attitude in the Qajar period. The atmosphere of Qajar architecture followed the same attitude. From the middle of the Nasserite era onwards, the confrontation between tradition and modernity led to the victory of modernity, and architecture has since lost its ancient forms and taken on a Western appearance. The palaces of this period played the most important role in carrying out this evolution by being a pioneer in reflecting the architectural developments of their time. This architecture is a break from the previous tradition and in line with Western traditions and the achievements of Western civilization. The weakness of the Qajar government and the inability of the traditional system to confront the Western traditions created changes and currents in Iranian architecture. Iran’s entry into the Third World during the Qajar period caused Western civilization to become a model in many fields, including architecture, and among these, the first examples were seen in palaces and mansions. The decline of Iranian architectural traditions began in the middle of the Qajar period. In fact, the Qajar period is the era of weakening the historical and original Iranian traditions and the development and spread of Western architecture in Iran.
 Over time, in the years following the reign of Fath Ali Shah, buildings were erected that were considered the source of changes in traditional architecture. With the construction of a building such as Shams al-Amara, which has not benefited much from Western technology and can only be pointed out to be high-rise. Towards the end of Nasser al-Din Shah’s reign, the shape and construction of buildings and palaces shifted to the European neoclassical style.
As we approach the end of the Qajar rule, the construction of buildings has become easier and there is no more traditional and introverted architecture, and modern buildings are being replaced by western and extroverted methods. Towards the end of this period, a number of elements of European architecture entered Iranian architecture and were used in combination with the same so-called traditional architecture. Some of these elements were borrowed from classical and neoclassical European architecture, and others were influenced by modern architecture. In short, Qajar architecture rightly upgraded the old Iranian architecture along with Western architecture, principles, principles and patterns and created innovations in terms of space. But it did not seem to have the strength to create a new architecture. In fact, in this period, due to the influence of Western architecture in Iran, our architects immersed it in the principles and patterns of traditional Iranian architecture, but by combining the two, they could not create a new style or pattern.

Abstract
Bampur historical complex is located in Makran – Jazmourian Basin in a flat plain in the Northwest of Bampur city, the capital of the region and 4 km to the North of Bampur River (20 km to the east of Iranshar). Extensive firing and burnt vestiges are one of the most characteristics phenomena at Bampur Castel. The evidence of firing is scattered nearly all over the site and it is not limited just to spaces like pits or kitchens. The diversity and abundance of brunt materials (seed of cereals, fruit remains, woods, charcoals and mat-made shoes) allowed us to use them for archaeobotanical studies. Due to the limited archaeological excavations especially in prehistoric sites, Iranian Baluchestān has so far been less-known from archaeobotanical and history of vegetation point of view. This research present the results of studies on the plant remains obtained from some pits and firing debris belonged to the Qajar period’s layers. The purpose of the study was to recognize the vegetation around the site and the type of plants used by the inhabitants during that period. Microscopic observations and analyze of 2301 charcoal fragments, woods, seeds, rachis segments and fruit remains showed that the vegetation cover around the Castel included trees such as tamaris, willow, acacia, musquit bean and date palm. They used the wood of these trees to meet their fuel needs (especially tamaris) or as construction materials (willow, acacaia and mesquites). Given the current ecology and geographical distribution of these species, it is reasonable to assume that the identified trees are native to the area and have grown around the Castel. Also the remains of Cereals (wheat and barley), fruits (date palm) and Cucurbits (Watermelon and melon) found in the firing debris testify agricultural activities. In addition, further evidence is attested by the presence of burnt seeds of the wild plants or weedy such as rye, bermuda grass, brome, wild grass, vetch milk, vetch, medic, goosefoot family, knotweed, seepweed, cowherb, asphodel and sedge family (present in the fields along with agricultural products).
Keywords: Archaeobotany, Bampur Castle, Wood utilization, Qajar Period, Southeastern Iran.

Introduction
The study of vegetal remains is not solely limited to climate change that occurs normaly over a long period of time. It could be used for reconstruction of vegetal cover, cultivation patterns or the introduction of non – native species compatible with the environment of a specific region. 
Bampur castel is located, in a flat plain on the northwest side of Bampur city, 4 km north of Bampur River and 20 km east of Iranshahr. The castel have a rectangular – oval shape in the northeast- southwest axis. Due to the best state of conservation at the site, large quantity of vegetal remains including seeds, fruit remains, woods, charcoals and reed mat and other artefcats were found in archaeological contexts. 
The present research will study plant data obtained from the excavated layers in the second season of excavations at Bampur castel conducted by Nozar Heydari in 2018 (heydari 2018). Here, we will try to answer to the following questions: 1. What was the vegetal cover around Bampur in the late Islamic period (Qajar period)? 2. Which kind of woods were used by the inhabitants of the region during that period? 3. What plants species were cultivated by the inhabitants as food resources?
Unfortunately archaeobotanical studies have not been realized in Iranian Baluchestān. Henece, for the first time archaeobotanical studies have been applied to identify the vegetation history of the area, the plant resources and the possible existence of non – native species. The Information on the agriculture and plant economy of Pakistani Baluchestān during the prehistoric times has been available (Tengberg, 1998; 1999; Tengberg & Thiebault, 2003; Costantini, 1981; 1990). However in the Iranian Baluchestān, no specialized study has been conducted in this field. In the southeasten part of the Iranian Plateau and in the Indo-Iranian Borderlands (Sistan, Baluchestān and Kerman) several long-term environmental studies have been carried out in some prehistoric sites by iranian and foreign experts resulted in obtaining valuable information on the history of agriculture and vegetal cover of the area (Costantini & Costantini-Biasini, 1985; Costantini, 1977a-b;  Costantini, 1979; Meadow, 1986; Shirazi & Shirazi, 2012; Tengberg, 2008; Mashkour et al., 2013 ; Vaezi et al., 2019; Hamzeh et al., 2016; Gurjazkaite et al., 2018; Shirazi 2019; Kavosh et al., 2020).

Material and Method
In the second season of excavations a total of six trenches were excavated including:  W1.T2, W1.T3, W1.T4, W1.T5, W1.T6, W1.T7. The archaeobotanical data were obtained from W1.T2, W1.T3, W1.T4, W1.T5. Extensive traces of fire and ashe were scattered all around the castel. Considering the diversity and large quantities of plant remains (grains, fruitstones, charcoals, woods and artefacts) it was decided to select them for archaeobotanical studies. In total, 10 samples from contexts such as pits and fire debris have been collected. From 153 litres of collected debris by water sieving, about 5690 ml. plant remains including seeds, fruitstones and rachis segments were obtainted. Laboratory studies of these data have been done in the Archaeobotanical Laboratory of the World Heritage Site of Shahr-i Sokhta.

Discussion
A total of 310 fragments of charcoal and woods and 1991 seeds, fruit stones and rachis segments were studies. Anthracological digramme indicates the presence of various trees and shrubs such as tamaris (Tamarix spp.), willow (Salix sp.), date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), acacia (Acacia sp.) and mesquites (Prosopis sp.). The relative abundance of tamaris and willow is higher (79%) than other plants. Tropical plants such as acacia and mesquites (15%) and fruits like date palm (6%) are in the second and third ranks respectively. This evidence shows that the inhabitants used the wood of tamaris as fule and willow, acacia and mesquites as construction materials. Given the habitat and geopraphical distribution of the actual vegetation, it is quite reasonable to assume that the identified trees are native to the area.
In addition to the identified trees, carpological digramme indicates the existence of various crops like cultivated cereals  (emmer wheat/Triticum dicoccum), bread wheat /T. aestivum, club wheat /T. compacteum and barley/Hordeum vulgare), fruits and cucurbits (date palm, melon and watermelon), wild grasses (rye, bermuda grass, brome), wild pulses (vetch milk, vetch, medic), and wild plant or weedy (goosefoot family, knotweed, seepweed, cowherb, asphodel and sedge family) that were present in the fields along with agricultural products.

Conclusion
According to our study, plant resources around Bampur includs trees such as tamaris, willow, acacia, date palm and mesquites. Tamaris is the main source of fuel in the region and willow, acacia and mesquites have been used as construction materials (beams for building strengthen). The remains of charcoal and wood of these trees in the explored contexts show that the inhabitants of the castel did not need to import wood from other areas to meet their needs and were completely self-sufficient in this regard. In addition to these tree, which grew naturally in the past as they do today, Baluchestān also enjoyed favorable conditions for cultivation of cereals (emmer wheat, bread wheat, club wheat and barley), cucurbits (melon and water melon) and other fruits especially date palm. 

Abstract
Due to the existence of fertile alluvial soil and more than one hundred aqueducts (Qanats), agriculture and horticulture were prosperous in the Borkhar plain, north of Isfahan during the Qajar period. Furthermore, its location on the Isfahan highway to the capital of government made it easy to export products to other regions. Accordingly, livelihood in the Borkhar plain was affected by agriculture and horticulture. The questions are: how was the exploitation and management of resources in the Borkhar during the Qajar period? What were the strategies of livelihood based on agriculture and horticulture in the Borkhar during that time? What were the characteristics of the architecture of gardens and farms in the Borkhar? Data were collected via documentary and field methods, and the research method is descriptive-analytical. Based on the archaeological data such as gardens with the irregular plan and vast gardens with the designed and regular plan, it can be concluded that the type of agriculture and horticulture in the Borkhar plain was subsistence agriculture and agribusiness. In the early Qajar era, subsistence agriculture was common in the Borkhar plain. But in the second half of the Qajar era, agribusiness became common in this region like in other parts of Iran. Therefore, the income of agribusiness was allocated to livelihood and biological needs in the second period. If historical sources are also studied through content analysis, the above two strategies of livelihood are concluded. There was subsistence agriculture in this plain, such as wheat, barley, watermelon, carrots, pomegranates, apples, legumes, turmeric, and beets, as well as commercial cultivation of melons and cotton. This agribusiness helped to strengthen economic power and livelihoods based on agricultural incomes.
Keywords: Strategies of Livelihood, Agriculture During Qajar Period, Architecture of Qajar Period, Borkhar in Isfahan, Khan’s Gardens.

Introduction
Livelihood means human assets, behaviors, and activities that determine the standard of living of an individual, family, or community (Ellis, 2000: 10). According to Chambers and Conway, livelihood also means the capabilities and necessary activities to survive and determine lifestyle (Chambers and Conway, 1992: I-II). The strategies of livelihood were developed in different communities to increase social welfare and public health (Gaillard et al., 2009: 120). These strategies were included agricultural and horticultural livelihood, animal husbandry, fisheries, industrial activities, road services, and trade. In this article, the architectural features of gardens and buildings related to agriculture in the Borkhar plain were explained. Then, the strategies of livelihood in this plain during the Qajar period were analyzed.
As the entrance passage of Isfahan from the north, Borkhar plain was a strategic area on the north-south communication route of the country. This plain was considered an agricultural and horticultural area on the periphery of Isfahan.
The questions are how was the exploitation of resources in the Borkhar during the Qajar period? What were the strategies of livelihood based on agriculture and horticulture in the Borkhar during that time? What were the characteristics of the architecture of gardens and farms in the Borkhar?
The importance of this research is that it recognizes the systems of management and exploitation of natural resources in the past, especially with an emphasis on the methods of achieving sustainable livelihoods based on the capabilities of the region. While today, some cities and villages in the region are facing serious risks in terms of conservation of natural resources and livelihood, due to incorrect policies in local and regional development and lack of attention to local capabilities.
Data were collected via documentary and field methods, and the research method is descriptive-analytical. Analyzes were performed by “content analysis” of historical sources and “spatial analysis” of architectural monuments related to horticulture and agriculture.

Exploitation and Resource Management in Borkhar 
Geologically, the Borkhar plain is an alluvial plain and its settlements were developed in these alluviums (Shafaqi, 2002: 97). These alluvial soils cause fertility in this plain. The fertility of the Borkhar plain on the one hand, and the rise of the landowners class in the Qajar period on the other, led to the division of ownership of agricultural lands and gardens between lords and large landowners. Accordingly, the number of lords increased and they gained higher social prestige during the Qajar period. In addition to building residential castles on their agricultural lands and gardens, the lords and employers hired several farmers and settled them to increase the production and use of the land (Amirhajloo et al., 2012b: 115). 
Despite the fertile soil, the amount of rainfall in Borkhar plain was low. Therefore, groundwater extraction methods were important and aqueducts were created in the plain for this reason. The remains of “Pang-khaneh” buildings as a place for the distribution of aqueduct water in the Borkhar plain are important. Factors affecting the water distribution of aqueducts in Borkhar plain were: the features of the place, the amount of water of aqueducts, the number of households using water resources, type of cultivation, and laws governing the region. Exceptionally, for private aqueducts located on lord’s farms, all aqueduct water belonged only to the landowner.

The Strategies of Horticulture and Agriculture Livelihood in Borkhar
If we want to analyze the livelihood strategies of horticulture and agriculture in the Borkhar plain, we must pay attention to “subsistence agriculture” and “Agribusiness”. Subsistence agriculture is a type of agriculture that aims to produce as much as the needs of the family, tribe, or village and does not pay attention to foreign markets and earnings (Mosher, 2008: 6). While Agribusiness means specialized cultivation, production over subsistence needs, and product sales in the various markets (Amini, 2016: 549). While from the middle of the Qajar era, especially from the time of Mohammad Shah and Nasser al-Din Shah, “Agribusiness” also became popular (Mansour Bakht, 2009: 123, 147). 
Archaeological evidence of the Qajar era in the Borkhar plain indicates both of the above farming strategies. Archaeological remains show the subsistence agriculture strategy in this period; For example, small enclosed gardens, scattered and irregular gardens with an organic plan on the periphery of the villages of Morchekhort, Gaz, Gorgab, Sin, Dormian, Zaman Abad, Dastgerd, Dolatabad, Dombi, and Margh. While there is other evidence that shows the strategy of Agribusiness in Borkhar in the Qajar era, such as regular lordly gardens with a pre-designed plan and residential spaces for lords and farmers, as well as castles of landlords.
The content analysis of Qajar sources also confirms the existence of the above two livelihood strategies in Borkhar. For example, crops such as wheat, barley, watermelon, carrots, pomegranates, apples, legumes, summer vegetables, turmeric, and beets were grown for local consumption. But crops such as melons and cotton were grown commercially and then exported.

Conclusion
Based on the archaeological data and historical sources, subsistence agriculture was common in the Borkhar plain during the early Qajar era. But in the second half of the Qajar era, agribusiness became common in this region like in other parts of Iran. Therefore the income of agribusiness was allocated to livelihood and biological needs in the second period. If historical sources are also studied through content analysis, the above two strategies of livelihood are concluded. There was subsistence agriculture of wheat, barley, watermelon, carrots, pomegranates, apples, legumes, turmeric, and beets in this plain, as well as commercial cultivation of melons and cotton. This agribusiness helped to strengthen economic power and livelihoods based on agricultural incomes.

Abstract
The special conditions of the Qajar period have made it possible for Europeans to obtain Iranian carpets more than before. During this period, Europeans interested in Iranian rugs took advantage of the unique opportunities available to them to create, develop, and complete the assets of their rug collections in the best way. Familiarity with the fields of creating these opportunities on the one hand and knowledge of European strategy regarding the acquisition of Iranian carpets in this period are among the important and contemporary issues and concerns of carpet studies and of course museum studies and can complete our knowledge in this field. Accordingly, this article intends to follow the most important methods and strategies of Europeans in acquiring and owning Iranian rugs to identify and introduce the factors affecting their access to these rugs and their storage. In fact, in this research, we want to know what factors were involved in the formation of the process of collecting Qajar rugs by Europeans. For this purpose and to find the answer to this question, in this article, we have used the descriptive-analytical research method. We also collected our data in a library method and used a qualitative method to analyze them. Findings and results of this study indicate that the tradition of offering rugs to ambassadors and European courts on the one hand and the rugs export industry of this period have been the most important traditional factors in collecting valuable Iranian rugs by Europeans. Also, due to the cultural changes and modernization of the Qajar kings, especially Nasser al-Din Shah, and the welcome to participate in the famous international exhibitions of the nineteenth century is also one of the newest methods and facilities of European carpet collecting in this period. 
Keywords: Persian carpets, Qajar period, Carpet Collection, European collections.

Introduction
The special conditions of the Qajar period had made it possible for Europeans to obtain Iranian carpets more than before. During this period, Europeans interested in Iranian carpets took advantage of the unique opportunities available to them to create, develop and complete the assets of their carpet collections. Today, one of the topics of concern and contemporary concerns in carpet studies is getting acquainted with the fields of creating these opportunities on the one hand and becoming aware of the facilities and methods used by Europeans about Iranian carpets on the other hand. Just as the quantity and quality of the presence of Iranian carpets in European collections and museums is important, so are the factors influencing the transfer of these carpets and the manner in which they were taken over by the Europeans.
Therefore, this article intends to follow the most important methods and possibilities of Europeans in acquiring and possessing Iranian carpets in the Qajar period to identify and introduce the effective factors in their acquisition and storage of these carpets. In order to achieve this goal, in order to explain this issue in principle, the contents of this article were organized under two general sections. At the beginning and in the first part of the article, the role of the court tradition of donating carpets to ambassadors and European courts, which has been common, in examining Iranian carpets to European collections, was examined. On the other hand, in the continuation of this section, the contribution of the carpet export industry to the prosperity of European collections was studied and analyzed. Here, the role of Iranian merchants in transporting carpets to Europe was mainly discussed. In the second part of the article, the effect of international exhibitions on increasing popularity and subsequently expanding the desire of Europeans to own Iranian carpets was discussed. International exhibitions are considered a relatively new phenomenon that the holding of these events facilitated and accelerated the development of Iranian carpet collections in Europe even more than the previous factor.
This article has been written using descriptive-analytical research method and has collected its data by library method. The statistical population is based on books, articles, catalogs and some related documents that have been analyzed qualitatively.

Discussion
This article tried to follow the most important methods and possibilities of Europeans in acquiring and possessing Iranian rugs in the Qajar period, to identify and introduce the factors influencing their access to and storage of these rugs. To achieve this goal, and to explain the principles of this issue, we have organized the contents of this article under two general sections. First, and in the first part of the article, we examined the role of the court tradition of donating rugs to ambassadors and European courts, which has been common, in finding Iranian rugs to European collections. 
On the other hand, in the continuation of this section, we have studied and analyzed the contribution of the rug export industry to the prosperity of European collections. Here we have mainly dealt with the role of Iranian traders in transporting rugs to Europe. In the second part of the article, we have discussed the effect that international exhibitions have had on increasing popularity and, consequently, expanding Europeans’ desire to own Iranian carpets. International exhibitions are a relatively new phenomenon and are specific to the Qajar period. Holding these events has facilitated and accelerated the development of Iranian rug collections in Europe even more than the previous factor. 

Conclusion
Numerous factors have paved the way for Europeans to embroider carpets during the Qajar period and their access to exquisite Iranian carpets. Items such as the tradition of offering carpets to European ambassadors and courts on the one hand, and the export of carpets by Iranian merchants on the other hand are among the most common and prevalent of these factors. Of course, during this period, in addition to embassies and European courts, their collections were also among the targets of these offerings. Museums such as Victoria and Albert have acquired excellent carpets in this way. Tabriz merchants have also played a special role in warming the Iranian carpet market in Europe. A significant part of Iranian carpet customers in Europe have been wealthy urban consumers. Although the carpets sent to these houses have in some cases been taken from private and public collections, the museum brokers have not neglected the Iranian carpet export markets and have started carpet weaving for their collections directly by purchasing these carpets. During this period, due to the development of exports, in addition to old and worn carpets, which were not originally woven for export purposes, new carpets were introduced that were woven specifically for presentation in European markets.
One of the unique ways of offering Iranian carpets in the Qajar period is attending international exhibitions in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. During this period, exhibitions were held in Vienna, London, Paris and Munich, in which Iranian carpets were also able to participate. Many of the rugs on display at these exhibitions belonged to the Safavid period. These carpets were more popular than the carpets of the Qajar period. Nevertheless, the carpets of both periods have attracted European customers. Many rugs were identified by Europeans by attending these exhibitions and were able to enter European collections and museums.

Abstract
While the Qajar era was in a recent past, little independent research has been done concerning the architecture and urban engineering of the first half of this era (1795 – 1847). The main reason behind such negligence might be that this period of Iranian architecture occurs between the golden age of architecture in Safavid Iran and the modern period in which Western architectural models infiltrated Iranian architecture and urban construction. In the present research, the aim is to identify the process of constructing architectural works and urban renovation in the first half of the Qajar period by drawing on historical evidence, written sources, and on top of that, archeological evidence. To do so, it is necessary to identify the factors that contributed to strategic policies of Qajar rulers vis-à-vis urban developments and renovations. Given that details of many civil constructions of the Qajar period are not available, this paper rests upon the assumption that archeological studies might be effectively drawn on to know the national strategy of these rulers in the development of cities. The research finds that factors, such as giving legitimacy to the Qajar government, attracting and seeking support of clergy and religious scholars, as well as attempts to achieve economic and civil development of the country for purposes of promoting the political power, played major parts in civil constructions by the Qajar dynasty. Other factors include military and defense policies, the question of succession and rivalries among senior Qajar princes, archaism of Qajar rulers, and their religious beliefs.
Keywords: Iran, Qajar Period, Srchitecture, Urban Construction, Civil Strategies.

Introduction
Urban construction and architecture of the first period of the Qajar era (1795 – 1847) is less studied as compared to other post-Islamic periods of Iranian architecture. Indeed, many researchers have rested content with Safavid and Zand periods. On the other hand, since the second period of the Qajar era marked watershed events such as advent of modernism in Iranian architecture, particularly during the reign of Naser al-Din Shah, a great number of studies have been devoted to developments of Iranian architecture in this period. This has resulted in a disproportion in studies of Qajar-era architecture and urban construction. Another significant point in a study of Qajar-era architecture and urban construction is its dependent, imitative character, as stressed by the majority of researchers. In their view, Safavid-era School of Isfahan left such a great impact on Iranian architecture and urban construction that no new element was contributed to that style, and the main tenets of the School of Isfahan were preserved throughout the Qajar period. This assessment is, however, based on the fact that there is no complete inventory of religious, governmental, and non-governmental buildings of the Qajar period and their architectural features, and indeed, all architectural works of the period have not yet been independently studied. As a matter of fact, one might say that the glory of Safavid architecture overshadowed the Qajar architecture in ways that many features of the latter have been overlooked. Regardless of the extent to which Qajar-era art and architecture was affected by Safavid art and architecture, because of the short temporal distance between the two periods, there is an assumption of full-fledged awareness of art and architecture in this period. In other words, since the Qajar period is close to our period, features and characteristics of its art, architecture, and urban construction tend to be overlooked in ways that other historical periods of Iranian architecture do not.
The research, the results of which are reported here, sought to fill the above gap through a study of elements of civil constructions of Qajar rulers in the first half of their reign (1795 – 1847) by drawing on a historical-analytic method. To do so, a picture of characteristics and quantities of civil constructions in this period is provided with a focus on archeological data and Qajar-era historical texts. Finally, all collected data are used in the analysis and assessment of the research hypothesis. The main question of this research pertains to the quantity and quality as well as the domain of civil enterprises of the first half of the Qajar period: Overall, could we talk about a coherent governmental strategy or project in executing civil policies of the period? It is assumed that, with the aid of archeological studies and architectural evidence, the national strategy of the rulers of this period concerning the development of cities and their civil constructions can effectively be studied and its characteristics can be accounted for. Moreover, while it goes beyond the scope of this paper to give an inventory of all architectural works and enterprises associated with the development of Iranian cities in the period, we have tried to consider the activities of rulers in the first half of the Qajar period in Dār al-Khilāfa (Caliphal Center) of Tehran and other major centers of Iranian provinces of the time. In this way, an outline of the comprehensive governmental plan can be provided and its features can be delineated. That is, we focus on enterprises that seem to have been carried out in harmonious, inclusive, and comprehensive ways as an all-embracing governmental plan in the majority of cities and centers of provinces.

Conclusion
In reply to the main question of this research concerning the factors relevant to the national strategy of Qajar rulers in urban renovations and developments of civil constructions from 1795 to 1847, three such factors might be highlighted: attempts to give legitimacy to and establish the Qajar government, winning the support of the clergy and religious scholars, and economic and civil development of the country in line with the promotion of the political power. Furthermore, during the reign of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar, and given the political circumstances and military struggles of his period, as well as the need for the establishment of the sovereignty of the Qajar government, buildings began to be built with defense and military functions, including Agha Mohammad Khani Castle in Bagh-e Takht in Shiraz (Eslami 1350, 68) and construction of fortifications in Sari (Malkonov 1363, 151). In addition, upon his enthronement, Agha Mohammad Khan commanded the restoration of paintings in Chehel Sotoun pavilion, including the paintings of the Battle of Chaldiran and the Battle of Karnal, which suggests his special concern for the establishment of national sovereignty and the territorial integrity of Iran. A consideration of sources and architectural works constructed in the first half of the Qajar period reveals that the majority of civil constructions was done in big cities such as Tehran, Isfahan, Qom, Tabriz, Qazvin, Shiraz, and Kashan, as well as smaller capital cities of provinces, such as Kerman, Sanandaj, and Yazd. Nevertheless, because of unfortunate economic circumstances, lack of liquidities, and huge expenses of constant battles with the neighboring countries, most of buildings in smaller cities were built by people, businessmen, and clergies, without much interventions by the government in their development and civil construction. Notwithstanding this, there seems to have been a vast governmental enterprise, like that of the Safavid era, in the first half of the Qajar period, although the general construction of Iranian cities did not undergo a dramatic change in that period, and just like its preceding period, cities were developed around mosques and bazaars. Although the project fell short of the Safavid project in its principles of architecture and artistic character, it still resembled the Safavid enterprise in its vastness and distribution. Moreover, it had its own artistic qualities and peculiarities, which make for its distinction from other periods. In fact, the buildings of this period have a particularly Qajar mark on them. On this account, while Qajar-era architecture and urban construction should be deemed continuous with Safavid architectural developments and urban construction, and in general, with the Safavid-era Isfahan School, it does involve modifications and novelties in virtue of which it might be distinguished from Safavid architecture. In view of the relative political stability of Iran in this period, after decades of wars and conflicts, many architectural works and public buildings were repaired and restored. It would not be an overstatement if we called this a period of building restorations. Aside from numerous cases of restoration of religious buildings, many public buildings such as caravanserais, bathhouses, cisterns (ab anbars), and bazaars were restored and renovated in this period. Constructions of all sorts of mosques and schools in this period, which came to be called “Sultani” (monarchial or affiliated with the sultanate) schools or mosques, are somewhat reminiscent of civil constructions of the Seljuk period, in which Khwāja Niẓām al-Mulk built Niẓāmiyya schools, only that instead of reinforcing the Shāfiʿī branch of Sunni Islam, this time the Uṣūlī branch of Shiite jurisprudence was intended to be reinforced through these mosques and schools. Uṣūlī (as opposed to Akhbārī) scholars were honored and treasured by Qajar rulers. A case in point is the construction of mausoleums for this group of Shiite scholars. The close tie between the monarchial court and religious groups was more evident in religiously sanctified cities such as Qom and Shiraz, where elaborate civil constructions were carried out for purposes of attracting the support of religious scholars. As a result of trying to imitate the structure of the Caliphal Center (i.e. Tehran) and the attempts by those affiliated with the Qajar court in smaller provincial capitals, a general pattern of some sort was visible throughout the country. All this made for a pattern that can be characterized as an architectural and urban-planning school of the first half of the Qajar period.

Acknowledgment
The authors feel obliged to express their gratitude to the anonymous reviewers of the journal who graciously accepted the task and enriched the content of the article with their constructive suggestions.

Observation Contribution
The authors declare that, considering the article is extracted from a doctoral dissertation, the manuscript was written by the first author under the guidance and supervision of the second author and the consultation of the third author.

Conflict of Interest
The authors, while adhering to publication ethics, declare the absence of any conflicts of interest.