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Zahra Rezasoltani, Mitra Shateri,
year 8, Issue 29 (12-2024)
year 8, Issue 29 (12-2024)
Abstract
Abstract
With the election of Isfahan in 1597 A.D. As the capital of the Safavid dynasty, many buildings were built in the city, most of their interior and exterior surfaces were decorated with tiles. The miniaturists of this era came to the help of tile artists and created beautiful and eye-catching works by drawing various motifs. In the Safavid period, and with the flourishing of the Isfahan school, the restriction of human figures, disappeared. According to this study, with the aim of relative dating of tiles by comparing their human motifs with the dated miniatures motifs of this period, has tried to answer these questions: What effects did the painting of the Safavid period have on the human motifs of the tiles of this period, and these effects How can it be used in the dating of tile paintings? The method of gathering the findings of this research; Findings were made through library and field studies and by identifying more than 80 tile frames with human figures from non-religious buildings and works in different museums, and the research method is descriptive, analytical, and comparative. The results of the research indicate that the human motifs on the tiles from the Isfahan school of the Safavid period have been deeply influenced, and according to the themes of the motifs, the characteristics of the drawing of clothes (Turbans, hats, shawls wrapped around the waist, long and flowery dresses), facial expressions, eyebrows, even The type of designed dishes and their matching with the motifs of figures, it is possible to consider the time period between the end of the first half to the beginning and the end of the second half of the 11th century AH for the frame of the tiles.
Keywords: Safavid Period, Dating, Human Figure, Tile, Painting.
Introduction
Tiling is one of the practical methods in architectural decoration. Since the invention of tile, this art and craft has been used in a wide way to enhance and cover the surfaces of interior and exterior of Iranian buildings. With the emergence of the Safavid dynasty, art and craft found a new life and the Safavid rulers, who were art lovers, made their court as the center of artistic and industrial gathering. Although the art of tiling is not considered an innovative art of the Safavid period, but in this time, it was not limited to the mere adaptation and imitation of the art of the predecessors, and the expansion and manifestation of this art was given special attention. The motifs drawn on the tiles of this period were more diverse than in the past, and included all types of plant motifs, geometrical, inscriptional, human, animal and even mythological motifs, while in the Timurid period, mostly plant motifs, geometrical, and inscriptional were drawn and the use of human and animal motifs was not acceptable. Such a trend had an influence on painting and, as a result, the motifs drawn on the tiles of the early Safavid period, as the tiles of the first Safavid period mostly had geometrical, Islimi and inscription motifs, but gradually with the flourishing of the Isfahan school of painting and the tendency abundant with human images, the use of single faces in terracotta works and tiles also spread.
Since the drawing of motifs on the tiles and pottery of each period was done by contemporary painters and in line with the common painting school, based on this, the following article has tried to study the human motifs of the tiles left over from the Safavid period (on buildings or separated from them).
Research questions: The current research has been carried out in the direction of the relative dating of the tiles with human motifs that have remained from the Safavid period, so the main questions of this research are What effects did the painting of the Safavid period have on the human motifs of the tiles of this period, and these effects How can it be used in the dating of tile paintings?
Research method: In this research, the information is collected through collecting library documents and texts, and field investigations in works, buildings (such as baths and churches) and museums and indoor collections (such as national museum) and museums of outside Iran (such as the Louvre or Metropolitan) have been collected. In this regard, 80 tile frames with human motifs, all were made in underglaze technology, were identified, 13 frames are still in the buildings, in their own place, and all of them are in the city of Isfahan and the rest, are separated from their main places and scattered in museums and collections inside and outside of Iran. It should be mentioned that for comparison, 50 paintings of Isfahan style, which have human motifs and have the most similarity in terms of subject and theme, style and execution method with the human motifs of the tiles, were selected. Based on the research goal and questions; the research method are descriptive, analytical and comparative.
Research background
Based on the investigations carried out, it can be said that the researches that have been carried out on the motifs of the Safavid period tiles have mostly focused on plant motifs, geometrical, and inscription motifs, and have only pointed to human motifs. Their relative dating also has not been researched. The most important references made in this area among the sources of the first category belong to travelers such as “Pietro Della Valle” (2005), who in his travelogue briefly discussed the general patterns of the tiles of this period. Among the second-hand sources, researchers such as “Sourani”(2017) have investigated the effects of painting on human and animal motifs of Safavid period fabrics. “Bakui” (2014) has also paid attention to the investigation and comparative study of the human motifs of the metals of this period. “Reisi” (1990) briefly mentioned only the introduction of a few human motifs in some of the buildings left from this period. “Mansouri Jazabadi” (2013) investigated different motifs of Safavid to Qajar bathroom tiles in the city of Isfahan and among the introduction of different motifs, she also discussed some human motifs. Despite these studies, no independent and focused research has been done on the human motifs of the tiles and their relative dating with other works, which is what the present study aims to achieve.
Discussion
The spread of Isfahan’s painting style had an impact on all arts such as tile work, metal work, pottery, or cloth weaving. This was more evident in the art of tiling, because the selection of Isfahan as the capital led to an increase in the process of urban development and the construction of various private and public works and buildings, and the need to cover their internal and external surfaces with tiles quickly. This was made possible with the help of seven-color (Haft Rang) tile technology. Among the motifs drawn on the tiles, human motifs found a revival after centuries, but these motifs were mostly used in the decoration of palaces, baths and churches. Since it was not customary to mention the date of making the tiles with human motifs, nowadays it is enough to attribute them to the Safavid period. Whereas, by classifying the themes and matching and comparing the elements in the tiles’ patterns with figures, a relatively more accurate history can be obtained.
Conclusion
By checking and studying the themes of the collected tiles and also examining the way of drawing motifs, we can be witnessing the influence of the Isfahan school by carefully observing the details of the patterns on the tiles. What is often seen in the paintings of the Isfahan school are motifs of flower-watching and recreation scenes by men and women in gardens, motifs of everyday life scenes, single faces, hunting or escape, which can also be seen in the surviving examples of tiles from this period. Investigations indicated that there are many similar features in the patterns of the tiles with Isfahan style paintings. The most important commonalities can be classified into four general sections. Drawing facial and body expressions; Clothing and its types; Objects in the scenes such as containers or patterned backs; and natural elements such as trees, flowers and bushes. So following the painting style of the Isfahan school with careful attention to the details of the motifs, the enlargement of motifs in the middle of the frame and the dominance of motifs over the frame and the placing of single faces in the center can be clearly seen in the collected examples.
In general, according to the matching of the mentioned cases on the frames with the paintings, it seems that the tiles with human motifs with hunting themes and themes of young people studying in the time frame of the first half of the 11th century A.H.(16th A.D) and human motifs with the themes of flower procession and fun and single faces are placed in the second half of the 11th century A.H.(17th AD) according to the European clothes, aprons and hats.
With the election of Isfahan in 1597 A.D. As the capital of the Safavid dynasty, many buildings were built in the city, most of their interior and exterior surfaces were decorated with tiles. The miniaturists of this era came to the help of tile artists and created beautiful and eye-catching works by drawing various motifs. In the Safavid period, and with the flourishing of the Isfahan school, the restriction of human figures, disappeared. According to this study, with the aim of relative dating of tiles by comparing their human motifs with the dated miniatures motifs of this period, has tried to answer these questions: What effects did the painting of the Safavid period have on the human motifs of the tiles of this period, and these effects How can it be used in the dating of tile paintings? The method of gathering the findings of this research; Findings were made through library and field studies and by identifying more than 80 tile frames with human figures from non-religious buildings and works in different museums, and the research method is descriptive, analytical, and comparative. The results of the research indicate that the human motifs on the tiles from the Isfahan school of the Safavid period have been deeply influenced, and according to the themes of the motifs, the characteristics of the drawing of clothes (Turbans, hats, shawls wrapped around the waist, long and flowery dresses), facial expressions, eyebrows, even The type of designed dishes and their matching with the motifs of figures, it is possible to consider the time period between the end of the first half to the beginning and the end of the second half of the 11th century AH for the frame of the tiles.
Keywords: Safavid Period, Dating, Human Figure, Tile, Painting.
Introduction
Tiling is one of the practical methods in architectural decoration. Since the invention of tile, this art and craft has been used in a wide way to enhance and cover the surfaces of interior and exterior of Iranian buildings. With the emergence of the Safavid dynasty, art and craft found a new life and the Safavid rulers, who were art lovers, made their court as the center of artistic and industrial gathering. Although the art of tiling is not considered an innovative art of the Safavid period, but in this time, it was not limited to the mere adaptation and imitation of the art of the predecessors, and the expansion and manifestation of this art was given special attention. The motifs drawn on the tiles of this period were more diverse than in the past, and included all types of plant motifs, geometrical, inscriptional, human, animal and even mythological motifs, while in the Timurid period, mostly plant motifs, geometrical, and inscriptional were drawn and the use of human and animal motifs was not acceptable. Such a trend had an influence on painting and, as a result, the motifs drawn on the tiles of the early Safavid period, as the tiles of the first Safavid period mostly had geometrical, Islimi and inscription motifs, but gradually with the flourishing of the Isfahan school of painting and the tendency abundant with human images, the use of single faces in terracotta works and tiles also spread.
Since the drawing of motifs on the tiles and pottery of each period was done by contemporary painters and in line with the common painting school, based on this, the following article has tried to study the human motifs of the tiles left over from the Safavid period (on buildings or separated from them).
Research questions: The current research has been carried out in the direction of the relative dating of the tiles with human motifs that have remained from the Safavid period, so the main questions of this research are What effects did the painting of the Safavid period have on the human motifs of the tiles of this period, and these effects How can it be used in the dating of tile paintings?
Research method: In this research, the information is collected through collecting library documents and texts, and field investigations in works, buildings (such as baths and churches) and museums and indoor collections (such as national museum) and museums of outside Iran (such as the Louvre or Metropolitan) have been collected. In this regard, 80 tile frames with human motifs, all were made in underglaze technology, were identified, 13 frames are still in the buildings, in their own place, and all of them are in the city of Isfahan and the rest, are separated from their main places and scattered in museums and collections inside and outside of Iran. It should be mentioned that for comparison, 50 paintings of Isfahan style, which have human motifs and have the most similarity in terms of subject and theme, style and execution method with the human motifs of the tiles, were selected. Based on the research goal and questions; the research method are descriptive, analytical and comparative.
Research background
Based on the investigations carried out, it can be said that the researches that have been carried out on the motifs of the Safavid period tiles have mostly focused on plant motifs, geometrical, and inscription motifs, and have only pointed to human motifs. Their relative dating also has not been researched. The most important references made in this area among the sources of the first category belong to travelers such as “Pietro Della Valle” (2005), who in his travelogue briefly discussed the general patterns of the tiles of this period. Among the second-hand sources, researchers such as “Sourani”(2017) have investigated the effects of painting on human and animal motifs of Safavid period fabrics. “Bakui” (2014) has also paid attention to the investigation and comparative study of the human motifs of the metals of this period. “Reisi” (1990) briefly mentioned only the introduction of a few human motifs in some of the buildings left from this period. “Mansouri Jazabadi” (2013) investigated different motifs of Safavid to Qajar bathroom tiles in the city of Isfahan and among the introduction of different motifs, she also discussed some human motifs. Despite these studies, no independent and focused research has been done on the human motifs of the tiles and their relative dating with other works, which is what the present study aims to achieve.
Discussion
The spread of Isfahan’s painting style had an impact on all arts such as tile work, metal work, pottery, or cloth weaving. This was more evident in the art of tiling, because the selection of Isfahan as the capital led to an increase in the process of urban development and the construction of various private and public works and buildings, and the need to cover their internal and external surfaces with tiles quickly. This was made possible with the help of seven-color (Haft Rang) tile technology. Among the motifs drawn on the tiles, human motifs found a revival after centuries, but these motifs were mostly used in the decoration of palaces, baths and churches. Since it was not customary to mention the date of making the tiles with human motifs, nowadays it is enough to attribute them to the Safavid period. Whereas, by classifying the themes and matching and comparing the elements in the tiles’ patterns with figures, a relatively more accurate history can be obtained.
Conclusion
By checking and studying the themes of the collected tiles and also examining the way of drawing motifs, we can be witnessing the influence of the Isfahan school by carefully observing the details of the patterns on the tiles. What is often seen in the paintings of the Isfahan school are motifs of flower-watching and recreation scenes by men and women in gardens, motifs of everyday life scenes, single faces, hunting or escape, which can also be seen in the surviving examples of tiles from this period. Investigations indicated that there are many similar features in the patterns of the tiles with Isfahan style paintings. The most important commonalities can be classified into four general sections. Drawing facial and body expressions; Clothing and its types; Objects in the scenes such as containers or patterned backs; and natural elements such as trees, flowers and bushes. So following the painting style of the Isfahan school with careful attention to the details of the motifs, the enlargement of motifs in the middle of the frame and the dominance of motifs over the frame and the placing of single faces in the center can be clearly seen in the collected examples.
In general, according to the matching of the mentioned cases on the frames with the paintings, it seems that the tiles with human motifs with hunting themes and themes of young people studying in the time frame of the first half of the 11th century A.H.(16th A.D) and human motifs with the themes of flower procession and fun and single faces are placed in the second half of the 11th century A.H.(17th AD) according to the European clothes, aprons and hats.
Ali Salmani, Blal Nikpey,
year 8, Issue 30 (1-2025)
year 8, Issue 30 (1-2025)
Abstract
Abstract For the first time, “Mirza-Babai Esfahani” paid attention to the still life with the curtain “Yalda Night” in the Qajar period. In this period, under the influence of political, cultural and social conditions and influenced by factors such as the establishment of the printing press and the end of the era of book writing, familiarity with the thoughts of the Enlightenment era, courtiers who were deeply fascinated and intimidated by Western civilization, familiarity with photography and... the mission and function of art It underwent substantial changes. And the elements of Western art prevailed over the tradition of Iranian painting. So we come across an interesting paradox: the first screen of still life, which is a completely western genre, became the last bastion of resistance of Iranian painting elements. In this article, based on the historical, descriptive, analytical method, and by addressing the cultural and political conditions of the Safavid and Qajar eras, why Iranian painters, despite being familiar with Western works and greatly influenced by their art, do not pay attention to the genre of nature. Didn’t they die? What were the reasons for the emergence of this genre in the works of “Mirza-Baba” with a delay of two centuries? With this aim, the link between the popularization of realism and attention to nature in the works of Kalk Behzad’s heirs during the Safavid period, which is considered a turning point in the history of Iranian painting, to the creation of the first still life scene two centuries after these developments, let’s find. Keywords: Painting, Naturalism, Still Life, Realism, Painting. Introduction Countless illustrated books with historical, scientific, religious themes, love and lyrical mysticism and the representation of royal glory and glory have been left as a memory of those days; which is the result of the collective work of artists and writers and of course the result of commissions and royal workshops1, not the product of the free and creative spirit of the artist as a subject. Iranian painters paid attention to still life for the first time during the Qajar period and basically in this period, they were able to discover their creations independently of the orders of the court and by distancing themselves from the traditions governing Iranian painting, book writing, etc., as independent artists with genius. From this point of view, it is very important to pay attention to inanimate nature, especially in the works of Mirza-Babai Isfahani; And in addition to representing the political, social and cultural situation of that era, it can be considered a turning point in the history of Iranian painting. What the authors of this article are trying to analyze and deal with is this point; Why, despite the fact that Iranian painters were introduced to Western works during the Safavid era and accepted significant influences from the tradition of Western painting, they never paid attention to still life? However, due to reasons such as the relative independence of artists from the court and the emergence of the urban middle class as new patrons of artists and the familiarity of courtiers and artists with Western and Gorkan works, we witnessed significant developments in Iranian painting. What were the reasons for Iranian painters’ attention to still life in the Qajar period? With the aim of finding the connection line between the emergence of realism and the consideration of nature in the works of Kalk Behzad’s heirs during the Safavid period as a turning point in the history of Iranian painting, until the first scene of still life in the two centuries after those developments. Still life in Europe, and the fields of its emergence Still life in the 17th century, which was noticed again in the Protestant Netherlands, is the result of the freedom of the creative spirit and the genius of the individual and independent artist. Affected by the political, economic and religious issues of that era, it flourished. However, the ancient works were created in a different context and with a different function and could not be the product of the artist’s individual genius and creativity. As a result of the Reformation - the Protestant revolt against the Church of Rome (c. 1517) - religious painting in northern Europe suffered a serious decline, thus European society, even in the Middle Ages, has not seen a stricter position than Protestant theology in relation to art and the field of aesthetics. Insistence on eternal salvation and his decisive distinction between the earthly and heavenly spheres, in addition to depriving the artists of the support of the church without any financial resources. He had also emptied religious places and churches of all images and statues. Collecting pre-Christian myths and subjects related to classical art and literature was considered forbidden. Gardner raises a question in his enduring work “Art in the Passage of Time” whose answer is definitely considered one of the main factors of the developments in the art of that period in Europe and especially in the Netherlands. “Religious themes, or later classical and historical themes, were the main motivations for artistic creation during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. What else did the art world, deprived of these sources, have to enrich the lives of the wealthy Dutch?” (Gardner, 1381: 523) The painters who were independent from their employers and the ruling foundations of the church and created their works by relying on their own taste and creativity; which was one of the heavy consequences of this independence. Now they had to deal with the public buyers and attract the opinion of a large number of customers. In this way, Dutch artists in the 17th century, considering their leisure and independence, and of course in response to the interests of rich buyers who wanted paintings to hang on the walls of their houses - understood the signs of wealth, aristocracy and social status - as the common words of the people Alley and bazaar can shape the words of a beautiful song, ordinary everyday objects can create a masterpiece.” (Gumbridge, 2013: 420) The little Dutch masters simulated the least valuable objects that only have meaning in the presence of humans or in the lives of humans, so humbly and respectfully; that the viewer thinks he is watching some sacred objects” (Gardner, 2011: 531). The first curtain of still life, the last bastion of resistance of Iranian traditions from Safavid to Qajar During the Safavid era and according to the political and social conditions of that time, western traditions influenced Iranian painting. It can be said that Isfahan school painting was a fusion of western and Iranian traditions. Western elements were carefully used by Iranian artists. Iran at that time was unified, unified and glorious, and certainly in such conditions, artists and the middle class are not intimidated by the excitement of the cultural and artistic elements of the West. Many Iranian traditions were still respected, and efforts were being made to restore them. Of course, the developments in Iranian painting were not the result of intellectual developments and had no ideological base; And just by observing the western painting, it was also manifested in the works of Iranian artists. For this reason, in many cases, the adaptations seemed incomplete and clumsy. There was no still life in Iranian painting before the Qajar period, and although objects were part of the composition of images, they were not placed in front of the artist as an independent subject for painting. In the Qajar period, examples can be found where the objects are not the margins but the entire text of the painting. In the still life painting by Mirza-Babai Esfahani, pomegranates, pears, watermelons, vases and other objects are placed together in such a way that they form the main subject of the painting. These other objects are related to a legend, epic, text and or they are not poems. Their beauty and their painting aspect is the attention of the painter.” (Kord Noghani, 1397: 108) Conclusion In the early 10th century AD, with the emergence of the Safavid dynasty, we witnessed significant changes in the political, social and cultural fields, which influenced the art of that period. And took a new path. However, realism, naturalistic tendencies, new subjects and styles such as bright shadow, perspective, depth, as well as the weakening of the relationship between painting and literature, as a result of the decline of the hegemony of royal workshops and the rise of the middle class, entered Iranian painting. But the painters of this period did not pay attention to still life. At that time, Iran was experiencing its period of power and greatness, and it was not yet so enamored with western traditions that it forgot all Iranian elements and customs. Although the influence of the court workshops was reduced; But it still played a decisive role in the evolution of Iranian art. As a result, Iranian artists still did not have the necessary independence. And still, bibliography is considered the main painting activity at this stage. Creativity, genius, and individual independence of the artist as a subject was not limited; who can get rid of all traditions at once, and create a personal work with completely individual compositions and using everyday elements. As if it took some time for this process to go through and during the Qajar period, Mirza-Baba Esfahani recorded the first experience of still life. It can be concluded that the Iranian artist discovers objects in his new era and this new art - not industry - whose connection with text and literature has loosened and gained relative independence, is in search of a subject for the image. The eyes of the artist - not the craftsman - find this theme in the objects around them and placing them next to each other in a beautiful way; Undoubtedly, the diminution of the educational role of the royal workshops and the spread of university and modern education have been very important in discovering the genius and creativity of the artists of that period.
Xiaoqiang Mi,
year 9, Issue 31 (5-2025)
year 9, Issue 31 (5-2025)
Abstract
The depiction of camel fighting in rock art to express certain rituals of human can be traced back to the late Paleolithic period and is believed to have originated in present-day northwestern Kazakhstan. After the domestication of Bactrian camels, depictions of camel fighting developed a relatively standardized format, primarily presenting paired camels engaged in aggressive biting matches. This motif of camel fighting may have originated in the Karate and Baikonur regions of Kazakhstan during the Bronze Age. Due to geographical proximity, the custom of camel fighting was introduced to the Sarmatians in the Ural steppes early on, and through the Sarmatians, it spread to the Huns (Xiongnu) in the north and the Qiemo people in Xinjiang, China, and later to Kangju. The camel fighting depicted in the Sulaek petroglyphs in the Minusinsk Basin should be attributed to the Kyrgyz, and its origin is likely the Huns. The fighting camels in the Loulan mural tombs may have been inherited from Qiemo or originated from the Huns. The camel fighting motif in Persian miniature paintings first emerged during the Timurid period in the latter half of the 15th century CE. The Timurid Empire was founded by Timur, a noble from the Barlas tribe historically affiliated with Mongol aristocratic lineages. This Central Asian polity maintained profound Mongol cultural influences. Notably, camel fighting had already been practiced as courtly entertainment in the Yuan Dynasty (established by the Mongols) as early as the first half of the 14th century CE. This chronology demonstrates that the Mongols long upheld camel fighting rituals, and the motif in Persian miniatures was transmitted westward through Mongol cultural and political influence.
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