Abstract
The Marivan Plain is a small elongated alluvial plain which lies at the westernmost extent of the Zagros Mountains in the Iranian province of Kurdistan and c. 80 km west of the provincial capital Sanandaj. The plain is c. 60 km from the Iraqi city of Sulaymaniyah and less than 20 km from the Sharizor Plain in Iraq to the west. The plain is located between two archaeologically important regions of western Iran: the central Zagros to the southeast and the Lake Urmia region to the northeast. Early studies of prehistoric periods were mainly conducted in these two regions, while little attention was paid to the region of Marivan. Prior to the commencement of the 2018 project, an earlier survey in the Marivan region had been carried out by Department of Archaeology at Bu-Ali Sina University in Hamadan (Iran). Research focused on the Palaeolithic and Neolithic periods and, unfortunately, evidence from the Chalcolithic periods is yet to be published. In 2018, we began to re-examine ancient settlement in the Marivan region with a 4 week survey. The survey identified and documented more than 60 sites. Preliminary studies of the material collected during the survey resulted in the identification of about 13 sites dating to the Chalcolithic period; it was possible to differentiate the material sufficiently to allocate occupation at the sites to the Early, Middle and Late Chalcolithic periods. This paper presents the important and new evidence of the development of Late Chalcolithic period settlement and is starting to provide an insight into the impact of the Uruk Expansion in this part of the Zagros Mountains. Even the Late Chalcolithic (LC) period in Marivan area is somewhat overlap to Uruk (early, middle and late) period in Mesopotamia, until LC5 phase (Tepe Rasha), not any Mesopotamian influences is evident in Marivan sites. 
Keywords: Marivan Plain, Late Chalcolithic, Uruk, Mesopotamia, Tape Godin.

Introduction
This paper presents the first results from the Marivan Plain Survey (MPS) in the province of Kurdistan – one of the westernmost regions of Iran and the Zagros Mountains. The project recorded important new evidence of the development of Late Chalcolithic period settlement and is starting to provide an insight into the impact of the Uruk Expansion in this part of the Zagros Mountains. The MPS project began work on the Marivan Plain in the summer of 2018. It is undertaking a review of previous survey work in the region and is directed by Morteza Zamani with the assistance of Sirvan Mohammadi Ghasrian. The Marivan Plain is a small elongated alluvial plain (UTM 38S 603000E, 3930000N) which lies at the westernmost extent of the Zagros Mountains in the Iranian province of Kurdistan and c. 80 km west of the provincial capital Sanandaj. The plain is c. 60 km from the Iraqi city of Sulaymaniyah and less than 20 km from the Sharizor Plain in Iraq to the west. In the past, the plain of Marivan with its picturesque Lake Zerewar an important node in the communication routes between Iraq and Iran. The plain is located between two archaeologically important regions of western Iran: the central Zagros to the southeast and the Lake Urmia region to the northeast. Early studies of prehistoric periods were mainly conducted in these two regions, while little attention was paid to the region of Marivan. In 2018 the MPS began to re-examine ancient settlement in the Marivan region with a 4 week survey. The survey identified and documented more than 60 sites. Preliminary studies of the material collected during the survey resulted in the identification of about 13 sites dating to the Chalcolithic period; it was possible to differentiate the material sufficiently to allocate occupation at the sites to the Early, Middle and Late Chalcolithic periods.

Conclusion
Investigations conducted by the MPS on the Marivan Plain have resulted in the identification of two preliminary trends related to LC period sites:
Firstly, the MPS has recorded several sites dating to the Middle Chalcolithic and the later part of the LC period. Except for a few earlier LC (2) shreds (Godin VII/VI:3 period) identified from the site of Aba Fatol, not any LC 2 sites have yet been confirmed on the Marivan plain. This contrasts with other areas of western Iran and the province of Kurdistan where early LC2 sites are common. At this stage of research on the plain, it seems that there was a lower number of sites in the earlier LC (LC2) compared to both the previous Middle Chalcolithic period (Seh Gabi and Dalma pottery traditions) and the subsequent later part of the Late Chalcolithic –LC 3-5 (Godin VI: 2-1).
Secondly, the MPS recorded Uruk culture related material from a single site (Tepe Rasha) and only in the form of Bevelled Rim Bowl shreds. This is surprising and suggests that cultural interaction with southern Mesopotamia was limited or that what impact there was from cultural interaction was low and did not permeate into the local cultures. Limited evidence of contact with Uruk Mesopotamia is also evident from recent surveys in north-western Iran and in northern parts of the Iraqi foothills of Zagros. In contrast, distinct and substantial evidence of contact with the south is to be found in the central Western Zagros and Central Plateau of Iran and on the plains south of the Greater Zab River in north-eastern Iraq. Iran  and particularly  its western regions is crucial for the understanding of key events in the history of Mesopotamia, one of which is the spread of Uruk culture from southern Mesopotamian into neighbouring regions during the Late Chalcolithic (LC) period (5th-4th millennia B.C.). 

Abstract
Abstract: In the last two decades, as a result of the significant increase in archaeological field activities in Iraqi Kurdistan, some important sites and artifacts from the Sassanid period have been discovered. Even though during the Sassanid period, the northern region of Mesopotamia was considered a part of the Sassanid Empire, many archaeological features of this region in the Sassanid period have remained unknown. In this research, which was carried out using a library method, we have studied 42 ancient sites or monuments in Iraqi Kurdistan belonging to the Sassanid period, which have mainly been identified in recent years. This research aims to find an answer to some questions about the location of the Sassanid settlements in the region and the geographical and environmental factors affecting their formation. The Sassanid remnants of Iraqi Kurdistan include settlements, monuments, government complexes, fortifications, water channels, cemeteries, and the local production centers of textiles and pottery. The results of this research show that Sassanid settlements in Iraqi Kurdistan have mainly concentrated in three areas: 1. Shahrizur plain and the area around Dukan Lake 2. Erbil plain, 3. Garmian region. These areas, which are in the form of open plains and vast inter-mountain valleys, had importance in the Sassanid period due to having characteristics such as suitable height, abundant water sources, fertile soil, and being located on the important communication routes and therefore they were as a place for the formation of the settlements in the mentioned period.
Keywords: Iraqi Kurdistan, Northern Mesopotamia, Sasanian Period, Archaeological Settlements.

Introduction
The four-hundred-year Sassanid period is considered one of the important periods in the history of Iran and the Middle East. The northern region of Iraq, which is today known as the Kurdistan region, was considered one of the main parts of the Sasanian Empire. On the other hand, it was important politically and geopolitically due to its proximity to the Sassanid capital of Ctesiphon and its location between the Sassanid center and the Eastern Roman territory. Although historical sources provide a relatively clearer view of the northern region of Iraq in the Sassanid period, the archaeological evidence of the Sasanian period in Iraqi Kurdistan has not been significant until recent decades.
In the past two decades, a large number of historical and prehistoric sites in the mentioned region have been surveyed or excavated, among which a number are related to the Sassanid period. Identification of these sites and monuments can lead to better knowledge about the economic, political and social situation of the region during the Sassanid Empire.

Materials and Methods
One of the goals of this research is to investigate the Sassanid settlements of Iraqi Kurdistan based on the results of archaeological surveys and excavations. Some of the questions that this research seeks to answer are: 1. What are the most important settlements of the Sassanid period in Iraqi Kurdistan and how were they distributed?
2. Which areas in northern Iraq, had the greatest importance in terms of quantity and quality of Sassanid settlements? 3. What are the most important geographical and environmental factors involved in the formation of Sassanid settlements in Iraqi Kurdistan?

Data
Based on the distribution of Sassanid sites in Iraqi Kurdistan, this area has been divided into three parts including eastern, southern, and western parts:
Region 1: including the eastern part of Iraqi Kurdistan, which mainly includes the present-day Sulaymaniyah province, stretches from north to the Lake of Dukan and Darband Ranieh, from east to the border of Iran and Iraq, from west to the east bank of the little Zab river, and from the south to the end of the Shahrizur plain. The Sassanid sites of this region are:
Murad Rasu, Qalatga Darband, Usu Aska, Gerd-i Bazar, Merquly, Tell Sitak, Girdi Rostam, and the sites of Shahrizur plain including Gerd-i Kazhaw, Bestansur, SSP 4, Tell Begum, Gird-I Qalrakh, Sutik Tape, Bakr Awa
Region 2: Southern part of Iraqi Kurdistan (Garmian). The Sassanid sites of this region are:
Bazyan Palace, Girdi Qala, Paikuli, Sasanid palace of Paikuli, Qalai Gawri, SRP 9, SRP10, Irrigation canal of Kalar, Kani Masi/ Tell Majid, Gawr Tepe, Top Askar cemetery, Hawsh Kori
Region 3: Western part of Iraqi Kurdistan includes Erbil and Dohuk provinces. The Sassanid sites of this region are:
Tell Amiyan, Canal A of the village of Kawr Gosk, Erbil city, Qasr Shemamok, Tell Khazana/Khazna, site no. 31, Baqrta, Satu Qala, sites n.3, 8, 4, 22, 24, 25, 27&28 in Erbil plain

Discussion
The geographical and environmental factors affecting the distribution of Sasanian sites in Iraqi Kurdistan are:
1. Topography: The results of this research, which are reflected in Fig. 12, indicate that in total, about 76% of Sasanian sites of Iraqi Kurdistan are mainly located in the mountainous plains, and only a handful of the sites are located in the mountainous and high places outside of the plains.
2. Height above sea level: Most of the Sassanid settlements in Iraqi Kurdistan are located at an altitude of less than 600 m, and only a few sites are located at an altitude of more than 1000 m (Fig. 12). The lowest areas are located in the Garmian region, i.e. in the Sirvan river valley and the Kalar plain, which is mostly less than 300 m above sea level.
3. Access to water sources: All the Sasanian sites in the Kurdistan region are located near permanent water sources, the most important of which are Great Zab, Little Zab, and Sirvan. In addition to that, a significant number of sites are located next to permanent springs or smaller rivers, such as Shalar River in Penjwen, Wadi Shatwan and Tanjero in Shahrizur Plain, Tavuq cay in Chamchamal Plain and Shiwazor and Chai Siwasor in Erbil Plain. 

Access to Fertile Soil
The plains of Shahrizur, Erbil, and Garmian, where the largest number of Sasanian settlements are located, also have the most fertile soil in the region for agriculture (Yasin, 2014: 240).

Proximity to Communication Ways
Most of the Sassanid sites in Iraqi Kurdistan are located in the plains that were on the path of important commercial and political roads between southern Mesopotamia and the Sassanid capital on one hand with the land of Azerbaijan and the Iranian plateau in the east on other hand and the land of Eastern Rome, Asia Minor and Syria in the north and northwest on another hand. The existence of the Paikuli tower and some other important sites in the Sirvan river valley indicate the importance of this communication route.

The Extent of Sassanid Settlements
Most of the Sassanid sites in Iraqi Kurdistan are less than five hectares in size, which are considered small settlements. Therefore, we can see a significant difference between the extent of the Sasanian sites in the north and south of Mesopotamia. 

Conclusion
In this research, we have studied 42 sites or monuments of the Sassanid period in Iraqi Kurdistan, which were mainly discovered in the last two decades as a result of archaeological excavations or surveys. Some of the mentioned sites, such as Gerd-i Bazar, Gerd-i Kazhaw, Gird-i Qalrakh, Girdi Qala, Paikuli, Top-Askar, and Hawsh Kori, can be considered important sites of the Sasanian period in Iraqi Kurdistan. These sites contain information about memorial buildings (Paikuli), government complexes (Hawsh Kori), fortifications (Merquly, Gerd-i Kazhaw, SRP 9), water canals (Kawr Gosk, Kalar), Burial methods (Gerd-i Bazar, Top Askar), beliefs, economy and local centers for production textile (Gird-i Qalrakh), pottery and other livelihood aspects in Iraqi Kurdistan during the Sassanid period.
The result of this research shows that most Sassanid settlements in Iraqi Kurdistan are located in low-altitude and mid-mountain plains such as Shahrizur plain, Sirvan river valley, and Erbil plain. Among the advantages of these plains, we can point out access to permanent water sources, fertile soil, and location on the important communication routes that connect the west of Iran to the south of Turkey and east of Syria. In general, although most of the Sassanid sites discussed in this article lost their importance and were abandoned in the following periods, the plains where these sites were located, due to having ideal conditions and Geographical and environmental factors are still the main centers for urban settlements in the Kurdistan region.

Abstract
The horse held a prominent role in the culture of Iran and Mesopotamia, both from mythological and practical perspectives. The aesthetic treatment of horse equipment, beyond its functional aspect, was an expression of reverence for both the horse and its rider. This study aims to identify and analyze the structure, design, and motifs of horse covers (Jul) in Iran and Mesopotamia during the period from 1906 to 330 BCE. The main research question investigates the distinctive structural and decorative characteristics of horse covers in this era. The necessity of this research arises from the fact that, despite the significance of the horse and its equipment in ancient civilizations, the aesthetic and structural aspects of ancient horse covers have rarely been examined in previous studies. Employing a descriptive-analytical method, the study is based on qualitative analysis of documentary data and archaeological evidence. The data were collected through systematic note-taking, and the statistical population includes all available examples- textile fragments, visual representations, and archaeological findings- through which the structure and design of the horse covers of this period can be identified and analyzed. The findings indicate that horse covers in Mesopotamia and Iran evolved from simple, utilitarian forms in the Assyrian period to more complex and decorative types during the Elamite, Median, and Achaemenid periods. Throughout this evolution, their structure developed in terms of size and composition, progressing from small, undecorated examples to large-scale pieces featuring organized and symmetrical animal and vegetal motifs. Beyond their decorative role, these motifs reflected the aesthetic sensibility and cultural values of their weavers. Technically, the use of both flat-weaving and knotted-pile techniques demonstrates a synthesis of functional traditions and advanced weaving skills of the time. Overall, the stylistic and structural evolution of horse covers (Jul) represents a gradual progression in technical mastery, structural precision, and aesthetic awareness, forming the foundation for the later development of carpet weaving.
Keywords: Horse Cover (Jul), Mesopotamia, Ancient Iran, Carpet Weaving, Design and Motif.

Introduction
The domestication of the second generation of horses (DOM2) between 4500 and 3000 BCE in the Pontic–Caspian Steppe marked a turning point in human civilization. These horses, which replaced the earlier and wilder DOM1 type, played a fundamental role in transportation, warfare, and the broader social, economic, and cultural transformations of ancient societies. Their introduction to Mesopotamia, likely during the Akkadian period and more certainly under the Third Dynasty of Ur (2112–2004 BCE), led to significant advances in equestrian technologies. From the Assyrian period (1906–609 BCE) onward, the full use of horse equipment—including harnesses, chariots, saddlecloths (jul), and bridles—became widespread, granting societies with improved horse breeds military and economic superiority and fostering extensive cultural diffusion across Eurasia.
In both Iran and Mesopotamia, the horse held an important place in mythology as well as in practical life—agriculture, warfare, hunting, and transport. The aesthetic treatment and adornment of the horse, including the weaving of the Jul (saddlecloth), reflected the reverence accorded to the animal and its rider. The Jul was a functional textile placed under the saddle to absorb sweat and protect the horse’s back while also ensuring the rider’s comfort and balance. These cloths, made from materials such as wool, cotton, leather, or silk, were produced in various techniques—knotted-pile, flat-woven, jajim, or felt—and were common among nomadic groups.
Archaeological and historical evidence from 1906 to 330 BCE (corresponding to the Assyrian, Elamite, Median, and Achaemenid periods) indicates that the use of horse saddlecloths was prevalent in Iran and Mesopotamia, though little is known about their structure, design, and motifs. This study adopts a descriptive–analytical approach based on documentary research, including textual, visual, and archaeological evidence. All available samples were examined using census sampling, and the data were analyzed qualitatively. The theoretical framework combines Gordon Child’s evolutionary–historical approach with Leroi-Gourhan’s perspective, enabling analysis of both the technical development and the symbolic and cultural dimensions of horse covers (Jul) in Mesopotamia and Iran.

Discussion
Analysis of Assyrian reliefs indicates that horse saddlecloths (Juls) of this period exhibited limited structural and decorative variation, and equestrian equipment was still in the early stages of development. None of the depictions show saddles, stirrups, or securing straps, suggesting that riders sat directly on the jul with their legs hanging freely. However, the finely carved details of the horse’s headgear, including bridles and bits, demonstrate notable technical refinement in this area. Two main types of Juls can be identified: the first, simpler type—likely made of leather or felt—features two flaps and three girth straps; the second, more elaborate type, structurally resembles modern examples and was probably used for ceremonial or ritual purposes. The designs and borders of this latter group are simple yet harmonious, with recurring motifs such as the four-pealed flower, which also appears on the king’s garments, suggesting symbolic correspondence. Technically, the precise weaving method remains uncertain, though evidence points to techniques derived from traditional floor-weaving practices such as pile or flat weaving. Overall, Assyrian juls reflect a transitional stage from purely functional horse gear toward a more aesthetic and symbolic approach in equestrian equipment.
The analysis of Elamite, Median, and Achaemenid Juls (horse saddlecloths) reveals significant stylistic and structural diversity compared to Assyrian examples, owing to a broader corpus that includes rhyta, reliefs, and two surviving woven pieces. Iranian Juls display a transition from purely functional coverings to highly aesthetic and symbolic works. The Rhyta from Maku and Susa (8th–7th centuries BCE) show large, body-covering Juls adorned with animal and floral motifs—dynamic scenes of leopards, ibexes, boars, birds, and trees—arranged symmetrically or diagonally, reflecting a free, pictorial compositional system distinct from the geometric order of Assyrian designs. In the Achaemenid silver Rhyton from Erebuni (5th century BCE) and a similar woven piece identified by Franses (2019), repeated ibex motifs, symmetry, and minimalism emphasize symbolic harmony rather than narrative complexity. This visual tradition continues in the Pazyryk carpet (5th–4th centuries BCE), where 23 visible Juls share a unified geometric structure: rectangular forms with serrated or tasseled edges, linear borders, and symmetrical, abstract designs suggesting both aesthetic refinement and technical mastery. Comparable Juls appear in the Apadana reliefs at Persepolis and the Greco-Persian sarcophagus from Çan, confirming the consistency of form—rectangular bodies with serrated tassels extending to the horse’s hindquarters—across centuries and regions. Collectively, these findings indicate that Iranian Juls evolved from simple utilitarian gear into intricate, symbolically charged textiles, bridging technical innovation with a distinct artistic vocabulary rooted in ancient weaving and decorative traditions.

Conclusion 
This study analyzes the structure, design, and production techniques of horse covers (Jul) from the Assyrian period to the end of the Achaemenid era (1906–330 BCE), demonstrating that in ancient Iran and Mesopotamia these textiles functioned as more than purely utilitarian objects. Over time, horse covers evolved into multilayered media for aesthetic expression, cultural identity, power relations, and technological advancement in textile production. The findings indicate that, beyond responding to technical and climatic needs, horse covers provided a platform for the manifestation of symbolic systems and visual imagination, serving as an intermediary between functional textiles and ritual carpets.
Comparative analysis of Assyrian and Iranian examples reveals that structural differences—particularly in size and extent of coverage—stem from the interaction of climate, function, and culture. Assyrian horse covers, limited mainly to the horse’s back, reflect a functional and minimalist approach, whereas the expanded coverage of Iranian examples enabled greater visual complexity and decorative development. In terms of design and motifs, the gradual transition from Assyrian geometric simplicity to the richness of Iranian animal and vegetal motifs marks the emergence of a coherent symbolic visual language, culminating in the motifs of the Pazyryk carpet.
The diversity of manufacturing techniques, including felting, leatherworking, flat weaving, and pile weaving, reflects both technical sophistication and a functional hierarchy in which pile-woven textiles held ceremonial and symbolic roles. Archaeological and visual evidence further indicates the social and political significance of horse covers, particularly during the Achaemenid period, when they became symbols of power and courtly display.
Within the theoretical framework, the findings align with Gordon Child’s evolutionary–historical approach and Leroi-Gourhan’s theory of the relationship between technique, body, and symbolic expression, positioning the horse cover as a liminal object between function, technology, and meaning. The study thus highlights the enduring role of horse covers in shaping ancient textile traditions and the visual culture of Iran.