The historical fortress of Aq-Qalih, a large and little-known structure in the Juvayn Plain of northern Khorasan, is tentatively attributed to the Mongol Ilkhanid period based on limited prior studies. However, extant Ilkhanid -period documents offer no confirmation of its existence. Therefore, the hypothesis of Ilkhanid construction relies solely on archaeological evidence and the dated inscription of the Aq-Qalih Mosque. This research seeks to establish the significance of Aq-Qalih as a midway settlement along Ilkhanid travel routes in northern Khorasan, utilizing historical documents and GIS analysis. Further, by comparing Aq-Qalih’s structure with contemporaneous structures in Mongol-influenced regions of China and Iran, this study assesses the hypothesis of Ilkhanid construction. The findings indicate Aq-Qalih’s strategic location along major Ilkhanid travel routes, with the Ilkhans’ and their successors’ annual visits increasing the likelihood of a midway settlement. Moreover, structural comparisons with Chinese examples like Shangdu, Daidu, and Yingchang, as well as Sultaniyya in Iran, reveal significant similarities, bolstering the hypothesis of Ilkhanid-era construction.

In this article, I build on my earlier work, which places Manichaean missionary activity within a larger network of court activity from the Roman Empire to Tang China, in which ambassadors, as well as wandering sages and ritual specialists, spread knowledge about cultural difference. These interactions usually took part between neighboring principalities, but they were also enmeshed in the gradual spread eastward of Iranian Manichaeism across Central Asia. Various Manichaean accounts highlight the importance of teaching “wisdom” in the bid for support from local rulers. According to the Cologne Mani Codex, Mani meets an unnamed king, instructing him in wisdom, the Manichaean commandments, as well as the “two natures”. What fragmentary evidence we possess for the spread of Manichaeism to China suggests that it, too, proceeded largely through the activity of traveling sages across court networks.