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year 7, Issue 26 (2-2024)
Abstract
Ferim, of the outskirts of Dodangeh district, is located south of Sari. Ferim had a political and military importance in the early Islamic era. Geopolitical factors, military and political capabilities should be counted among the causes of Ferim positioning. The existence of government and memorial buildings, structures and urban areas show the prevalence of the triple urban system in Ferim. No focused research has been performed on Tabaristans old cities. The historical sources not matching with the archaeological findings, has motivated the present study to be done. The following questions are posed in this article: What factors have involved in the formation, development and fall of the Ferim? What role did Ferim play in the political developments of the region? The following assumptions can be raised: A geographic location, being central to the surrounding villages and equipped with the due productive and economic capacities have been among the influential factors in the formation and development of the Ferim. The political and natural factors are counted in Ferims waning. he political capital of Ferim as the ruling hub and the existence of defense and military structures indicate the strategic political and military status of Ferim. Natural and geopolitical boundary, strategic status and political-military position are the most effective factors in the formation and development of the city. The location of Resket Tower and the Shahneshin site covering an area of 1000 m2 and the discovery of surface cultural evidence demonstrates that the dynamism and urban life of the old city should be searched in the mentioned site. Comparing the plan of the Shahneshin with some contemporary and more ancient constructions implies that this state building played a dual role, that is called “mosque-house” in the architecture of early Islam in Iran. The political and natural factors are the reasons behind Ferims fall in the end of the 5th and 10th century of Hijri calendar.
Keywords: Ferim, Gharan-Kooh, Espahbadan, Capital, Resket Tower, Shahneshin.
Introduction
In different historical periods, the formation of cities was under the influence of diverse factors, among the most important of which suitable natural location, political, military and defense factors, economic, commercial and religious factors can be denoted (see: Orooji & Alipour, 2013: 21). Islamic cities were viewed as the direct inhibitors of Sassanid methods of urban development (Mehr-Afarin, 2014: 81). On the other hand, despite the spread of Islam in Tabarestan, the presence of native clans following the suit of the interactions and mechanisms of the Sassanid period led to the social relations and policy-making practices in this region to be a combination of Sassanid approaches and Islamic traditions.
In Tabarestan, besides the aforementioned sites and contexts, the natural and defensive fortifying factors were critical in the cities being built and located. Thus, in the feudalism era, due to the distinctive strategic and military capabilities of foothills, the cities of the region were predominantly constructed in such sites. In many cases, such cities did not need large castles and towers, ramparts, and high lookouts, as well as upkeep costs, because the inaccessible locations and impassable roads hampered the invading forces to easily access them.
Amid this, despite being pointed out in numerous sources and in the existing historical evidence, the city of Ferim as a highland in old Tabarestan (in the territory of present-day Mazandaran province) is of the cities about which few studies and excavations have been done. At the same time, lack of sufficient information about the political, military, defense functions, urban organizations and other structural features of this city and this information not being compatible with the limited archaeological findings requires dealing with such issue. This requirement gets more decisive - considering the presence of the local ruling clans (Espahbadan), -at least since the Sassanid era- in the region and their conflict or appeasement with the central governments under the supervision of the Islamic caliphs or trans-regional forces.
The main objectives of the current study are to get a picture of the urban potentials, the effective variables in the urban formation and development, the most important discovered works and their functions, to sketch the spatial organization of the city and study the determining factors in the collapse of the city of Ferim.
Study Data
Ferim, an ancient city in Qaran-kooh in the southern part of Old Tabarestan, located 60 kilometers south of Sari, which has been mentioned as the capital of Espahbadan, city, castle, borough and region in the sources (unknown author, 1993: 147; Ibn-Hawqal, 1987: 119; Etemad-Al-Saltana, 1994; 102; Rabino, 1964: 226) was the residence of Karen clan rulers since Sassanid dynasty, after the collapse of which it was governed by their descendants (Ibn-Hawqal, 1987; 119; see: Istakhri, 1961: 169).
The existence of some structures such as palace, local bathhouse, square and jam-e mosque in Ferim (Ibn-Esfandyar, 1987: 156; Rabino, 1964: 226) stresses the urban and political status of Ferim among countless surrounding villages and the rulers. The coin minting in Ferim indicates the political legitimacy of Espahbadan dwelling in Ferim and the unique economic position of this city among its bordering towns and villages in the 4th century AH.
The most important factors influencing the formation of Ferim should be considered the natural and topographic ones, the geopolitical factors and economic potentials.
Today the evidence of the urban life of Ferim can be seen in two in situ structures: The Resket Tower from the early 5th century AH (see: Figs. 1 and 2) and Shahneshin building from the mid-4th century AH (see: Plan 1; Figs. 3-6). The surface cultural evidence in the site of the mentioned monuments strengthens the chances of the existence of the old city of Ferim in this region (see Abedini, 2007: 261; Abedini, Nikoobayan and Shirzadi, 2014: 389; also Plan 2). Comparing the plan of Shahneshin with its preceding or contemporary buildings demonstrates that this structure cannot be the Jam-e Mosque mentioned in the sources and posits the theory of this dual-purpose building.
Conclusion
The ancient city of Ferim, as a castle, the capital and the governing base of Al-Qaran rulers, was the treasure house, the military camp and the military barrack of the survivors of the Sassanid clans from the historical era to early Islamic centuries. What makes this mountain city remarkable and creditable was its strategic location as the headquarters and capital of local kings. Despite the loss of the urban status of Ferim before the mid centuries, the existence of Ferim in the cartographic sources demonstrates the continuing social life of this city within centuries.
Several factors influencing the formation and development of the city of Ferim include the natural and topographical location, geopolitical location and inherent security, maintaining a reasonable distance from other political bases, political and geographical status, and dynamic agricultural and animal husbandry oriented economy and production potentials.
The existence of the Resket Tower monument and the discovery of the Shahneshin site in addition to finding the cultural evidence in the vicinity of the tower emphasizes the presence of a dynamic city with an approximate thousand-meter radius from the Shahneshin site .No similarity between the plan of Shahneshin and that of the primary Iranian mosques and allocating a ritual space in the heart of a complex called the ruler’s palace or the governing headquarters supports the hypothesis behind assigning Ferim Jam-e Mosque to the Shahneshin site and the mosque-house theory.
From the end of the 5th century AH, Ferim gradually lost its previous prestige and glory. The reason for the decline of Ferim should be sought in the following factors: the political factors and transferring the capital from Ferim to Sari in 486 AH, two major earthquakes shaking it in 521/506 and 700 AH, the emergence of the powerful Safavid dynasty in the 10th century, and integrating the countrywide political-military system.
Espahbad of Tabarestan, Espahbad of Qaran, the son of Sukhra, residing in Ferim stresses the irreplaceable political status of this city during the early centuries. The interaction between the citizens of Tabarestan with each other and with the officials of Royan in the serious political-government decisions indicates the critical role of the mentioned cities, particularly Ferim, in the political organization of Tabarestan of that period.
year 9, Issue 32 (8-2025)
The ancient city of Ghazni was one of the important cities of the Islamic period and served as the capital of the Ghaznavid dynasty. It is located six kilometers north of the modern city of Ghazni. The strategic significance of this city in the historical and civilizational developments of the Islamic era attracted the attention of archaeologists after World War II, leading to periodic excavations at its ancient sites. Most studies conducted on Ghazni during the Ghaznavid period have been based on historical sources, while archaeological investigations have primarily focused on the elite sections of the city and findings from the palaces of the Ghaznavid dynasty. In this context, the recent excavations by the Afghan team in the area between the two minarets—which form the basis of the present article—are particularly significant because they examine the commoner neighborhoods of the city. The main aim of this study is to illuminate aspects of everyday urban life in this part of the city during the Ghaznavid era, as the authors believe that understanding this area is crucial for a comprehensive knowledge of the city in that period. Despite the relative preservation of Ghazni’s historical fabric and architectural monuments, no comprehensive study has yet determined the city’s spatial structure. Therefore, a thorough research project was undertaken to answer the question of how Ghazni’s spatial development evolved and to reconstruct the form of the city’s spaces during its peak. To achieve this, investigations were carried out within the historical context of the city, and the results of field studies were compared with written sources. The study revealed that the underlying layers of the neighborhood around the Masʿud III Minaret date back to pre-Islamic periods.
Keywords: Ghazni City, Capital of Ghaznavids, Masoud III Palace, Bahram Shah Minaret, Lashkari Bazar.
Introduction
Today, the city of Ghazni is located approximately 135 kilometers southwest of Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan, along the Kabul–Kandahar highway. The ancient city of Ghazni, or Ghaznin, situated six kilometers north of the modern city of Ghazni (Fig. 1), lies at an elevation of 2,183 meters above sea level in an intermontane plain, with its water resources primarily supplied by the Gul Koh Mountain range to the north of the plain (Farahmand, 2020). According to the results of the joint Indo-Afghan archaeological mission in 1967, evidence indicates that humans inhabited this region as far back as the Paleolithic period (Alshin & Hammond, 2021: 88). The Avesta, the oldest sacred text of Zoroastrianism, is the earliest source to mention the Ghazni region, referring to it as “Kakhra.” In Ptolemy’s Geography of the 2nd century CE, Ghazni is referred to as “Gazos” (Yamin, 2001: 170). Archaeological evidence uncovered from excavations at the Tepe Sardar sanctuary suggests that the city dates back at least to the 2nd century CE, during the Kushan Empire (Tedi, 1983). Nevertheless, until the Ghaznavid period, Ghazni remained a small town governed by local rulers (Faizi, 2002).
In the 3rd century AH, the Saffarids, the first Muslim Iranian dynasty, launched campaigns into this region, and the local rulers (the Lawik dynasty) became their tributaries, turning Ghazni into a military base for their operations (Mojahed, 2003: 102–107). After the Saffarids’ defeat, the Lawik family became vassals of the Samanids until 351 AH, when Alp-Tegin, a Turkic slave of the Samanids who had risen to the rank of military commander, succeeded in defeating the last ruler of the Lawik dynasty (Habibi, 2011: 40–41). Following this, the city became the capital of the Ghaznavid state. Ghazni reached its peak prosperity during the Ghaznavid period but gradually declined due to internal conflicts and the Ghurid invasions in the 6th century AH. The city was ultimately destroyed by the Mongol invasions and never regained its former prominence (Mousavi-Haji et al., 2019).
Most studies conducted on the city of Ghazni during the Ghaznavid period have relied primarily on historical sources, while archaeological research has largely focused on the elite sections of the city and the findings from the palaces of the Ghaznavid dynasty. In this context, the recent excavations by the Afghan team in the area between the two minarets—which form the basis of the present article—are particularly significant because they examine the commoner neighborhoods of the city. The primary aim of this study is to shed light on aspects of everyday urban life in this part of Ghazni during the Ghaznavid period, as the authors believe that understanding this section is crucial for a comprehensive knowledge of the city in that era.
Research Questions: The present study seeks to answer fundamental questions regarding the urban fabric, especially the densely built central area of the city during the Ghaznavid period. Specifically, it addresses two major questions about the urban space and its development during this period: First, can the transition from the pre-Islamic to the Islamic era be identified in Ghazni based on archaeological evidence and in a stratified sequence? Second, when was the central part of Ghazni formed, and what types of urban transformations did this section undergo during the Ghaznavid period?
Research Methodology: The research presented in this article is fundamental in nature, aimed at addressing the above questions. It was conducted based on field studies, archaeological excavation reports, and documentary (library-based) research.
Spatial Structure of the City of Ghazni in the Ghaznavid Era
Archaeological evidence indicates that the main pre-Islamic part of the city was limited to the citadel (Fig. 2) and the sanctuary known as Tepe Sardar and its surrounding area (Sherato, 1959). Alp-Tegin, a Turkic emir in the Samanid army, was defeated in an internal succession struggle in Bukhara but managed in 351 AH to defeat the army sent by the new Samanid ruler near Balkh. He then captured the city of Ghazni, which was under the rule of Abubakr Lawik, a local vassal of the Samanids (Kargar, 2004: 5–6). Upon Alp-Tegin’s death in 352 AH, his son and successor, Abu Ishaq Ibrahim, could not withstand the army of Abubakr Lawik’s son and successor, Abu Ali Lawik, and fled to Bukhara. Only a year later, with the support of the forces of Amir Mansur Samanid, he reclaimed Ghazni, and he passed away shortly afterward in 355 AH (Heidari, 2011: 55–57). From this date onward, Ghazni became part of the Islamic territories.
After a decade of rule by Bilgatgin (355–365 AH), Ghazni witnessed further conflicts among Sebuktigin, Yirigtigin, and Abu Ali Lawik and his ally Hindushah of Kabul. As a result, Sebuktigin (365–387 AH) rose to power, marking the beginning of the city’s first major constructions in the Islamic period. It is reported that he built a palace called Sahlabad, which remained unfinished and whose location is now unknown. The only surviving monument from this period is the tomb of Sebuktigin, located in the Afghan Chāl neighborhood of Ghazni (Jalali, 1972: 1–7).
Conclusion
Field studies in the city of Ghazni have revealed that the core of the city was centered around the “Shiyar Qara-Bagh neighborhood” in the southern part of the city, near the Hind and Gardiz gates. Since the archaeological site known as “Tepe Sardar” dates back to the Kushan period, it can be confidently argued that the origins of Ghazni extend to the Kushan Empire (30–350 CE). Archaeological evidence indicates that during the Ghaznavid period, the city expanded toward the west and north, extending toward the Sefid Koh highlands.
Archaeological findings also show that significant transformations occurred in the neighborhood today known as “Afghan Chāl,” which likely existed even before the Ghaznavid period. This area became a royal and administrative district, as evidenced by key structures such as the Masʿud III Palace, the tomb of Sebuktigin, and the Bahram Shah and Masʿud III Minarets. Based on archaeological evidence, in the 5th century AH this part of the city, particularly the central area between the two minarets, experienced significant prosperity and likely hosted the jeweler’s market. With the establishment of the market in this neighborhood, residents of the city appear to have settled in surrounding districts such as Shuleh, contributing to the city’s westward expansion.
However, with the decline of Ghaznavid power, the city suffered extensive damage during the conflicts between the Ghaznavids and the Ghurids and was ultimately destroyed by the Mongol invasions. Nevertheless, the city was not entirely lost and, over the centuries, managed to sustain its existence.
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