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Saeed Amirhajloo,
year 5, Issue 17 (12-2021)
year 5, Issue 17 (12-2021)
Abstract
Abstract
Due to the existence of fertile alluvial soil and more than one hundred aqueducts (Qanats), agriculture and horticulture were prosperous in the Borkhar plain, north of Isfahan during the Qajar period. Furthermore, its location on the Isfahan highway to the capital of government made it easy to export products to other regions. Accordingly, livelihood in the Borkhar plain was affected by agriculture and horticulture. The questions are: how was the exploitation and management of resources in the Borkhar during the Qajar period? What were the strategies of livelihood based on agriculture and horticulture in the Borkhar during that time? What were the characteristics of the architecture of gardens and farms in the Borkhar? Data were collected via documentary and field methods, and the research method is descriptive-analytical. Based on the archaeological data such as gardens with the irregular plan and vast gardens with the designed and regular plan, it can be concluded that the type of agriculture and horticulture in the Borkhar plain was subsistence agriculture and agribusiness. In the early Qajar era, subsistence agriculture was common in the Borkhar plain. But in the second half of the Qajar era, agribusiness became common in this region like in other parts of Iran. Therefore, the income of agribusiness was allocated to livelihood and biological needs in the second period. If historical sources are also studied through content analysis, the above two strategies of livelihood are concluded. There was subsistence agriculture in this plain, such as wheat, barley, watermelon, carrots, pomegranates, apples, legumes, turmeric, and beets, as well as commercial cultivation of melons and cotton. This agribusiness helped to strengthen economic power and livelihoods based on agricultural incomes.
Keywords: Strategies of Livelihood, Agriculture During Qajar Period, Architecture of Qajar Period, Borkhar in Isfahan, Khan’s Gardens.
Introduction
Livelihood means human assets, behaviors, and activities that determine the standard of living of an individual, family, or community (Ellis, 2000: 10). According to Chambers and Conway, livelihood also means the capabilities and necessary activities to survive and determine lifestyle (Chambers and Conway, 1992: I-II). The strategies of livelihood were developed in different communities to increase social welfare and public health (Gaillard et al., 2009: 120). These strategies were included agricultural and horticultural livelihood, animal husbandry, fisheries, industrial activities, road services, and trade. In this article, the architectural features of gardens and buildings related to agriculture in the Borkhar plain were explained. Then, the strategies of livelihood in this plain during the Qajar period were analyzed.
As the entrance passage of Isfahan from the north, Borkhar plain was a strategic area on the north-south communication route of the country. This plain was considered an agricultural and horticultural area on the periphery of Isfahan.
The questions are how was the exploitation of resources in the Borkhar during the Qajar period? What were the strategies of livelihood based on agriculture and horticulture in the Borkhar during that time? What were the characteristics of the architecture of gardens and farms in the Borkhar?
The importance of this research is that it recognizes the systems of management and exploitation of natural resources in the past, especially with an emphasis on the methods of achieving sustainable livelihoods based on the capabilities of the region. While today, some cities and villages in the region are facing serious risks in terms of conservation of natural resources and livelihood, due to incorrect policies in local and regional development and lack of attention to local capabilities.
Data were collected via documentary and field methods, and the research method is descriptive-analytical. Analyzes were performed by “content analysis” of historical sources and “spatial analysis” of architectural monuments related to horticulture and agriculture.
Exploitation and Resource Management in Borkhar
Geologically, the Borkhar plain is an alluvial plain and its settlements were developed in these alluviums (Shafaqi, 2002: 97). These alluvial soils cause fertility in this plain. The fertility of the Borkhar plain on the one hand, and the rise of the landowners class in the Qajar period on the other, led to the division of ownership of agricultural lands and gardens between lords and large landowners. Accordingly, the number of lords increased and they gained higher social prestige during the Qajar period. In addition to building residential castles on their agricultural lands and gardens, the lords and employers hired several farmers and settled them to increase the production and use of the land (Amirhajloo et al., 2012b: 115).
Despite the fertile soil, the amount of rainfall in Borkhar plain was low. Therefore, groundwater extraction methods were important and aqueducts were created in the plain for this reason. The remains of “Pang-khaneh” buildings as a place for the distribution of aqueduct water in the Borkhar plain are important. Factors affecting the water distribution of aqueducts in Borkhar plain were: the features of the place, the amount of water of aqueducts, the number of households using water resources, type of cultivation, and laws governing the region. Exceptionally, for private aqueducts located on lord’s farms, all aqueduct water belonged only to the landowner.
The Strategies of Horticulture and Agriculture Livelihood in Borkhar
If we want to analyze the livelihood strategies of horticulture and agriculture in the Borkhar plain, we must pay attention to “subsistence agriculture” and “Agribusiness”. Subsistence agriculture is a type of agriculture that aims to produce as much as the needs of the family, tribe, or village and does not pay attention to foreign markets and earnings (Mosher, 2008: 6). While Agribusiness means specialized cultivation, production over subsistence needs, and product sales in the various markets (Amini, 2016: 549). While from the middle of the Qajar era, especially from the time of Mohammad Shah and Nasser al-Din Shah, “Agribusiness” also became popular (Mansour Bakht, 2009: 123, 147).
Archaeological evidence of the Qajar era in the Borkhar plain indicates both of the above farming strategies. Archaeological remains show the subsistence agriculture strategy in this period; For example, small enclosed gardens, scattered and irregular gardens with an organic plan on the periphery of the villages of Morchekhort, Gaz, Gorgab, Sin, Dormian, Zaman Abad, Dastgerd, Dolatabad, Dombi, and Margh. While there is other evidence that shows the strategy of Agribusiness in Borkhar in the Qajar era, such as regular lordly gardens with a pre-designed plan and residential spaces for lords and farmers, as well as castles of landlords.
The content analysis of Qajar sources also confirms the existence of the above two livelihood strategies in Borkhar. For example, crops such as wheat, barley, watermelon, carrots, pomegranates, apples, legumes, summer vegetables, turmeric, and beets were grown for local consumption. But crops such as melons and cotton were grown commercially and then exported.
Conclusion
Based on the archaeological data and historical sources, subsistence agriculture was common in the Borkhar plain during the early Qajar era. But in the second half of the Qajar era, agribusiness became common in this region like in other parts of Iran. Therefore the income of agribusiness was allocated to livelihood and biological needs in the second period. If historical sources are also studied through content analysis, the above two strategies of livelihood are concluded. There was subsistence agriculture of wheat, barley, watermelon, carrots, pomegranates, apples, legumes, turmeric, and beets in this plain, as well as commercial cultivation of melons and cotton. This agribusiness helped to strengthen economic power and livelihoods based on agricultural incomes.
Due to the existence of fertile alluvial soil and more than one hundred aqueducts (Qanats), agriculture and horticulture were prosperous in the Borkhar plain, north of Isfahan during the Qajar period. Furthermore, its location on the Isfahan highway to the capital of government made it easy to export products to other regions. Accordingly, livelihood in the Borkhar plain was affected by agriculture and horticulture. The questions are: how was the exploitation and management of resources in the Borkhar during the Qajar period? What were the strategies of livelihood based on agriculture and horticulture in the Borkhar during that time? What were the characteristics of the architecture of gardens and farms in the Borkhar? Data were collected via documentary and field methods, and the research method is descriptive-analytical. Based on the archaeological data such as gardens with the irregular plan and vast gardens with the designed and regular plan, it can be concluded that the type of agriculture and horticulture in the Borkhar plain was subsistence agriculture and agribusiness. In the early Qajar era, subsistence agriculture was common in the Borkhar plain. But in the second half of the Qajar era, agribusiness became common in this region like in other parts of Iran. Therefore, the income of agribusiness was allocated to livelihood and biological needs in the second period. If historical sources are also studied through content analysis, the above two strategies of livelihood are concluded. There was subsistence agriculture in this plain, such as wheat, barley, watermelon, carrots, pomegranates, apples, legumes, turmeric, and beets, as well as commercial cultivation of melons and cotton. This agribusiness helped to strengthen economic power and livelihoods based on agricultural incomes.
Keywords: Strategies of Livelihood, Agriculture During Qajar Period, Architecture of Qajar Period, Borkhar in Isfahan, Khan’s Gardens.
Introduction
Livelihood means human assets, behaviors, and activities that determine the standard of living of an individual, family, or community (Ellis, 2000: 10). According to Chambers and Conway, livelihood also means the capabilities and necessary activities to survive and determine lifestyle (Chambers and Conway, 1992: I-II). The strategies of livelihood were developed in different communities to increase social welfare and public health (Gaillard et al., 2009: 120). These strategies were included agricultural and horticultural livelihood, animal husbandry, fisheries, industrial activities, road services, and trade. In this article, the architectural features of gardens and buildings related to agriculture in the Borkhar plain were explained. Then, the strategies of livelihood in this plain during the Qajar period were analyzed.
As the entrance passage of Isfahan from the north, Borkhar plain was a strategic area on the north-south communication route of the country. This plain was considered an agricultural and horticultural area on the periphery of Isfahan.
The questions are how was the exploitation of resources in the Borkhar during the Qajar period? What were the strategies of livelihood based on agriculture and horticulture in the Borkhar during that time? What were the characteristics of the architecture of gardens and farms in the Borkhar?
The importance of this research is that it recognizes the systems of management and exploitation of natural resources in the past, especially with an emphasis on the methods of achieving sustainable livelihoods based on the capabilities of the region. While today, some cities and villages in the region are facing serious risks in terms of conservation of natural resources and livelihood, due to incorrect policies in local and regional development and lack of attention to local capabilities.
Data were collected via documentary and field methods, and the research method is descriptive-analytical. Analyzes were performed by “content analysis” of historical sources and “spatial analysis” of architectural monuments related to horticulture and agriculture.
Exploitation and Resource Management in Borkhar
Geologically, the Borkhar plain is an alluvial plain and its settlements were developed in these alluviums (Shafaqi, 2002: 97). These alluvial soils cause fertility in this plain. The fertility of the Borkhar plain on the one hand, and the rise of the landowners class in the Qajar period on the other, led to the division of ownership of agricultural lands and gardens between lords and large landowners. Accordingly, the number of lords increased and they gained higher social prestige during the Qajar period. In addition to building residential castles on their agricultural lands and gardens, the lords and employers hired several farmers and settled them to increase the production and use of the land (Amirhajloo et al., 2012b: 115).
Despite the fertile soil, the amount of rainfall in Borkhar plain was low. Therefore, groundwater extraction methods were important and aqueducts were created in the plain for this reason. The remains of “Pang-khaneh” buildings as a place for the distribution of aqueduct water in the Borkhar plain are important. Factors affecting the water distribution of aqueducts in Borkhar plain were: the features of the place, the amount of water of aqueducts, the number of households using water resources, type of cultivation, and laws governing the region. Exceptionally, for private aqueducts located on lord’s farms, all aqueduct water belonged only to the landowner.
The Strategies of Horticulture and Agriculture Livelihood in Borkhar
If we want to analyze the livelihood strategies of horticulture and agriculture in the Borkhar plain, we must pay attention to “subsistence agriculture” and “Agribusiness”. Subsistence agriculture is a type of agriculture that aims to produce as much as the needs of the family, tribe, or village and does not pay attention to foreign markets and earnings (Mosher, 2008: 6). While Agribusiness means specialized cultivation, production over subsistence needs, and product sales in the various markets (Amini, 2016: 549). While from the middle of the Qajar era, especially from the time of Mohammad Shah and Nasser al-Din Shah, “Agribusiness” also became popular (Mansour Bakht, 2009: 123, 147).
Archaeological evidence of the Qajar era in the Borkhar plain indicates both of the above farming strategies. Archaeological remains show the subsistence agriculture strategy in this period; For example, small enclosed gardens, scattered and irregular gardens with an organic plan on the periphery of the villages of Morchekhort, Gaz, Gorgab, Sin, Dormian, Zaman Abad, Dastgerd, Dolatabad, Dombi, and Margh. While there is other evidence that shows the strategy of Agribusiness in Borkhar in the Qajar era, such as regular lordly gardens with a pre-designed plan and residential spaces for lords and farmers, as well as castles of landlords.
The content analysis of Qajar sources also confirms the existence of the above two livelihood strategies in Borkhar. For example, crops such as wheat, barley, watermelon, carrots, pomegranates, apples, legumes, summer vegetables, turmeric, and beets were grown for local consumption. But crops such as melons and cotton were grown commercially and then exported.
Conclusion
Based on the archaeological data and historical sources, subsistence agriculture was common in the Borkhar plain during the early Qajar era. But in the second half of the Qajar era, agribusiness became common in this region like in other parts of Iran. Therefore the income of agribusiness was allocated to livelihood and biological needs in the second period. If historical sources are also studied through content analysis, the above two strategies of livelihood are concluded. There was subsistence agriculture of wheat, barley, watermelon, carrots, pomegranates, apples, legumes, turmeric, and beets in this plain, as well as commercial cultivation of melons and cotton. This agribusiness helped to strengthen economic power and livelihoods based on agricultural incomes.
Abbasali Ahmadi,
year 7, Issue 25 (12-2023)
year 7, Issue 25 (12-2023)
Abstract
Abstract
In the present research, the gravestones of the Islamic period in the Borkhar region, located in the north of Isfahan have been studied with the aim of identifying and classifying the types of species, in order to answer the following questions, in a descriptive-analytical way and with a typological approach.1- From a morphological point of view, which types of carved and inscribed tombstones existed in Borkhar? 2- What are the structural and temporal characteristics of these species in comparison with each other and in comparison with common species in other regions? 3- What is the quantity and distribution of types of gravestones in the settlements of the region and what information does it contain? Based on the results of this research, 404 tombstones were identified in the settlements and ancient sites of Borkhar. This tombstone belongs to the Safavid to Qajar periods and includes 5 species, 7 main subspecies and 29 subspecies. Although the placement in this typology has been considered; Despite this, the shape structure is the most important criterion for this division, and in the next levels, criteria such as the methods of composing the arrays, the type and the manner of the dimensions and volumes have been considered. The main species include Varaghei, Sandoghi, Ketabi (including 4 main subspecies), horizontal Mehrabi (including 3 main subspecies) and Motbagh and correspond to samples obtained from other regions of Iran. The most common species are the Balindar, the Ketabi-e Bozorg, the Mehrabi-e Jonaghi and the Sandoghi, respectively, and the two types of Mehrabi-e Helali and Motbagh have the least use. The Sandoghi species was the most common species in the Safavid period and the the Balindar species and the Ketabi-e Bozorg was the most common species in the Qajar period. According to the results obtained between the identified species and the temporal, geographical and spatial conditions of the settlements in the region, close relationships can be seen. Vertical types are more prevalent in mountainous areas and horizontal types are prevalent in low and flat areas of the region.
Keywords: Tombstone, Typology, Masonry, Borkhar, Isfahan.
Introduction
Geographically, Borkhar includes a vast plain with foothills in the north and west of it, and from the point of view of old administrative divisions, it was one of the Rastaqs of Isfahan. The word Rastaq or the Persian equivalent of that village corresponds to the modern part, and according to ancient texts, it was a place that had a lot of land and fields. According to the investigations, the history of settlement in this area reaches at least the Parthian period and from the Sassanid period to the end of the Qajar period, it has been considered as one of the rastaqs of Isfahan (Ahmadi, 2019). Old Borkhar, which corresponds to Borkhar city and the central part of Shahinshahr and Mimeh cities, from the northeast to Ardestan city, from the north to Natanz city, from the northwest to Mimeh, from the west and southwest with Alavijah and Dehgh cities, Najaf Abad. , Khomeinishahr, is limited to the city of Isfahan from the south and to the foothills of Isfahan from the east. Due to the rich cultural-historical background, there are many historical monuments left in this region, among which the prominent examples are the tombstones of the old cemeteries of some cities and villages in the region. Today, as a result of the expansion of urban and rural spaces, renovation of cemeteries, changes in traditions and cultural assimilation, many of these tombstones have been forgotten and destroyed; Based on this, in the upcoming research, Borkhar tombstones have been identified, introduced and studied for the first time as works whose destruction and destruction are felt more than ever. These tombstones belong to the Safavid to Qajar periods and are found in the old cemeteries of the villages and towns of the region such as Soh, Bideshak, Dehlor, Kalhorud, Bagh Miran, Morche khort, Gaz, Sin, Azarmanabad, Shapurabad, Habibabad, Narmi. And the ancient sites of Sefidab and Jalalabad have been identified. Although the basis of the upcoming research is the introduction of Borkhar tombstones and its importance to researchers and guardians; Nevertheless, the main goal was the typology and classification of identified tombstones based on their form and appearance characteristics in line with the goals and questions of this research; It is obvious that investigating the various aspects of the inscriptions on these tombstones requires independent research and was not the focus of this research. Based on this, the most important questions of this research are these: 1- From a morphological point of view, which types of carved and inscribed tombstones existed in Borkhar? 2- What are the structural and temporal characteristics of these species in comparison with each other and in comparison with common species in other regions? 3- What is the quantity and distribution of types of gravestones in the settlements of the region and what information does it contain?
Discussion
The present research has been carried out with a descriptive-analytical method and with a typological approach, and the acquisition of data has been achieved in two stages of field surveys and library studies. In the typology of tombstones, aspects that are more inclusive and comprehensive than other features have been emphasized and have the ability to include other partial features. Due to the fact that the subject of the research was based only on the typology of engraved and engraved stone graves, the shape structure, surface design method, type of inscriptions and motifs were taken into consideration. In some cases, besides the mentioned cases, the criterion of gender has also been taken into consideration. Because in such cases, the difference in the type of stone has led to differences in other cases, such as the way of designing and combining decorations and inscriptions. Varaghei tombstones are generally irregular polygonal shapes. In the meantime, more skill has been spent in carving a few of them and they have been carved into shapes such as square, rectangle, triangle, altar and pseudo-rhombus; However, the accuracy that is used in the cutting of other types of tombstones in the region is not seen in this type. Sandoghi tombstones are in the shape of a rectangular cube, and in addition to the top surface, its other four sides are also carved. Patterns and inscriptions are used in most of the samples on three and in some cases on four surfaces of the stone. Mehrabi type According to the shape of the upper part, is divided into three main subspecies. Ketabi tombstones can be divided into four main sub-types, including a Ketabi-e Bozorg, a Ketabi-e Marmary, a Ketabi-e Kochak, and a Ketabi-e Balindar, according to the differences in appearance, dimensions, and type of tombstone. The tombstones of the Motbagh type all belong to the Qajar period and have been identified in only two cemeteries. In this type, the tombstone has a lower rectangular surface, a smaller rectangular surface on it and finally a platform or appendage on the upper part of the second surface.
Conclusion
According to what happened among the 404 tombstones examined in this research, 5 species and 7 main subspecies were identified and classified. Each of these twelve main and minor types is identified based on the appearance of gravestones, and then by criteria such as surface design methods, patterns and inscriptions placement methods, and their composition. were divided into 29 subspecies based on stone surfaces, type, type of inscriptions and motifs. Among these, the greatest degree of homogeneity in Sandoghi types, Ketabi-e Bozorg and Motbagh is seen. Some species have lower degrees of homogeneity. Among the species identified, some were single-period and some had continuity of use during the Safavid to Qajar periods. Although similar to these species can be seen in other regions of Iran; However, their vertical or horizontal placement could be different.
Examining the samples of each species in different regions of Iran shows that Varaghei, Sandoghi, matching and the main subspecies of Ketabi-e Kochak were common in different regions from the 4th and 5th centuries of Hijri until the Qajar period, and the horizontal subspecies of Mehrabi-e Helali, like the examples of this type in Borkhar, was common only in the Qajar style. Examining the quantity of types, taking into account the ratio between types and the number of cemeteries with that type, shows that in the Safavid to Qajar periods, types such as Balindar, Ketabi-e Bozorg, Varaghei, and Mehrabi-e Jonaghi and a Sandoghi are common types of the region, and matching types, a Sandoghi and Mehrabi-e Helali and a Ketabi-e Marmary, are among the less used types of the region. The high quantity of some species or the diversity of species in some settlements of the region has been influenced by the geographical, social, economic, cultural and indigenous conditions of those places. In the study of the ratio of type and time period, it was found that the box type was the most common type used in the Safavid period, and the pillowed and large book types were the most used types in the Qajar period.
Acknowledgment
The author considers it necessary to express her gratitude to the anonymous reviewers of the journal who worked hard and added to the richness of the text of the article with their constructive suggestions.
Conflict of Interest
This article is the result of a research work that was prepared and written by me. The sources and sources used are all correct and no material has been used without mentioning the title. The author undertakes responsibility for the correctness of all published materials.
In the present research, the gravestones of the Islamic period in the Borkhar region, located in the north of Isfahan have been studied with the aim of identifying and classifying the types of species, in order to answer the following questions, in a descriptive-analytical way and with a typological approach.1- From a morphological point of view, which types of carved and inscribed tombstones existed in Borkhar? 2- What are the structural and temporal characteristics of these species in comparison with each other and in comparison with common species in other regions? 3- What is the quantity and distribution of types of gravestones in the settlements of the region and what information does it contain? Based on the results of this research, 404 tombstones were identified in the settlements and ancient sites of Borkhar. This tombstone belongs to the Safavid to Qajar periods and includes 5 species, 7 main subspecies and 29 subspecies. Although the placement in this typology has been considered; Despite this, the shape structure is the most important criterion for this division, and in the next levels, criteria such as the methods of composing the arrays, the type and the manner of the dimensions and volumes have been considered. The main species include Varaghei, Sandoghi, Ketabi (including 4 main subspecies), horizontal Mehrabi (including 3 main subspecies) and Motbagh and correspond to samples obtained from other regions of Iran. The most common species are the Balindar, the Ketabi-e Bozorg, the Mehrabi-e Jonaghi and the Sandoghi, respectively, and the two types of Mehrabi-e Helali and Motbagh have the least use. The Sandoghi species was the most common species in the Safavid period and the the Balindar species and the Ketabi-e Bozorg was the most common species in the Qajar period. According to the results obtained between the identified species and the temporal, geographical and spatial conditions of the settlements in the region, close relationships can be seen. Vertical types are more prevalent in mountainous areas and horizontal types are prevalent in low and flat areas of the region.
Keywords: Tombstone, Typology, Masonry, Borkhar, Isfahan.
Introduction
Geographically, Borkhar includes a vast plain with foothills in the north and west of it, and from the point of view of old administrative divisions, it was one of the Rastaqs of Isfahan. The word Rastaq or the Persian equivalent of that village corresponds to the modern part, and according to ancient texts, it was a place that had a lot of land and fields. According to the investigations, the history of settlement in this area reaches at least the Parthian period and from the Sassanid period to the end of the Qajar period, it has been considered as one of the rastaqs of Isfahan (Ahmadi, 2019). Old Borkhar, which corresponds to Borkhar city and the central part of Shahinshahr and Mimeh cities, from the northeast to Ardestan city, from the north to Natanz city, from the northwest to Mimeh, from the west and southwest with Alavijah and Dehgh cities, Najaf Abad. , Khomeinishahr, is limited to the city of Isfahan from the south and to the foothills of Isfahan from the east. Due to the rich cultural-historical background, there are many historical monuments left in this region, among which the prominent examples are the tombstones of the old cemeteries of some cities and villages in the region. Today, as a result of the expansion of urban and rural spaces, renovation of cemeteries, changes in traditions and cultural assimilation, many of these tombstones have been forgotten and destroyed; Based on this, in the upcoming research, Borkhar tombstones have been identified, introduced and studied for the first time as works whose destruction and destruction are felt more than ever. These tombstones belong to the Safavid to Qajar periods and are found in the old cemeteries of the villages and towns of the region such as Soh, Bideshak, Dehlor, Kalhorud, Bagh Miran, Morche khort, Gaz, Sin, Azarmanabad, Shapurabad, Habibabad, Narmi. And the ancient sites of Sefidab and Jalalabad have been identified. Although the basis of the upcoming research is the introduction of Borkhar tombstones and its importance to researchers and guardians; Nevertheless, the main goal was the typology and classification of identified tombstones based on their form and appearance characteristics in line with the goals and questions of this research; It is obvious that investigating the various aspects of the inscriptions on these tombstones requires independent research and was not the focus of this research. Based on this, the most important questions of this research are these: 1- From a morphological point of view, which types of carved and inscribed tombstones existed in Borkhar? 2- What are the structural and temporal characteristics of these species in comparison with each other and in comparison with common species in other regions? 3- What is the quantity and distribution of types of gravestones in the settlements of the region and what information does it contain?
Discussion
The present research has been carried out with a descriptive-analytical method and with a typological approach, and the acquisition of data has been achieved in two stages of field surveys and library studies. In the typology of tombstones, aspects that are more inclusive and comprehensive than other features have been emphasized and have the ability to include other partial features. Due to the fact that the subject of the research was based only on the typology of engraved and engraved stone graves, the shape structure, surface design method, type of inscriptions and motifs were taken into consideration. In some cases, besides the mentioned cases, the criterion of gender has also been taken into consideration. Because in such cases, the difference in the type of stone has led to differences in other cases, such as the way of designing and combining decorations and inscriptions. Varaghei tombstones are generally irregular polygonal shapes. In the meantime, more skill has been spent in carving a few of them and they have been carved into shapes such as square, rectangle, triangle, altar and pseudo-rhombus; However, the accuracy that is used in the cutting of other types of tombstones in the region is not seen in this type. Sandoghi tombstones are in the shape of a rectangular cube, and in addition to the top surface, its other four sides are also carved. Patterns and inscriptions are used in most of the samples on three and in some cases on four surfaces of the stone. Mehrabi type According to the shape of the upper part, is divided into three main subspecies. Ketabi tombstones can be divided into four main sub-types, including a Ketabi-e Bozorg, a Ketabi-e Marmary, a Ketabi-e Kochak, and a Ketabi-e Balindar, according to the differences in appearance, dimensions, and type of tombstone. The tombstones of the Motbagh type all belong to the Qajar period and have been identified in only two cemeteries. In this type, the tombstone has a lower rectangular surface, a smaller rectangular surface on it and finally a platform or appendage on the upper part of the second surface.
Conclusion
According to what happened among the 404 tombstones examined in this research, 5 species and 7 main subspecies were identified and classified. Each of these twelve main and minor types is identified based on the appearance of gravestones, and then by criteria such as surface design methods, patterns and inscriptions placement methods, and their composition. were divided into 29 subspecies based on stone surfaces, type, type of inscriptions and motifs. Among these, the greatest degree of homogeneity in Sandoghi types, Ketabi-e Bozorg and Motbagh is seen. Some species have lower degrees of homogeneity. Among the species identified, some were single-period and some had continuity of use during the Safavid to Qajar periods. Although similar to these species can be seen in other regions of Iran; However, their vertical or horizontal placement could be different.
Examining the samples of each species in different regions of Iran shows that Varaghei, Sandoghi, matching and the main subspecies of Ketabi-e Kochak were common in different regions from the 4th and 5th centuries of Hijri until the Qajar period, and the horizontal subspecies of Mehrabi-e Helali, like the examples of this type in Borkhar, was common only in the Qajar style. Examining the quantity of types, taking into account the ratio between types and the number of cemeteries with that type, shows that in the Safavid to Qajar periods, types such as Balindar, Ketabi-e Bozorg, Varaghei, and Mehrabi-e Jonaghi and a Sandoghi are common types of the region, and matching types, a Sandoghi and Mehrabi-e Helali and a Ketabi-e Marmary, are among the less used types of the region. The high quantity of some species or the diversity of species in some settlements of the region has been influenced by the geographical, social, economic, cultural and indigenous conditions of those places. In the study of the ratio of type and time period, it was found that the box type was the most common type used in the Safavid period, and the pillowed and large book types were the most used types in the Qajar period.
Acknowledgment
The author considers it necessary to express her gratitude to the anonymous reviewers of the journal who worked hard and added to the richness of the text of the article with their constructive suggestions.
Conflict of Interest
This article is the result of a research work that was prepared and written by me. The sources and sources used are all correct and no material has been used without mentioning the title. The author undertakes responsibility for the correctness of all published materials.
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