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Tahereh Shishehbori, Hossein Ahmadi, Ahmad Salehikakhki,
year 6, Issue 20 (9-2022)
year 6, Issue 20 (9-2022)
Abstract
Abstract
Inscriptions in the decorations of building of the Islamic period have been noticed by artists since the early Islamic centuries. Overtime, inscriptions are damaged by various factors and need to be restored. Considering that every year in the country, a large amount of restoration operations are carried out on damaged historical monuments, including inscriptions. It was seen through the investigation that in most cases the restorations are tasteful and sometimes incorrect. In order to find the most important causes of incorrect restoration in written inscriptions, the qualitative method was used, and the grounded theory method was used to analyze the data. This research is practical in terms of purpose. The data was collected through field observations and interviews with 12 people related to the restoration of inscriptions and by purposeful sampling, and the data continued until theoretical saturation was reached. The results of the research showed that in addition to the lack of criteria that agree with the theoretical foundations of restorations, due to the prominence of the calligraphy and category, factors such as self-centered empiricism, the variety of viewpoints, knowledge and awareness of the traditional master craftsman and the rules of restoration and the lack of the artistic perspective of the traditional master craftsman. For various reasons, inscriptions have led to incorrect restorations, and of course, the lack of training courses by the institutions in charge of restoration has also been involved. Also, the variety of approaches in the restoration of inscriptions and lack of attention to the rules governing the art of inscriptions are considered as the most important consequences of the restoration of inscriptions.
Keywords: Written Inscription, Incorrect Restoration, Foundation Data Theory, Architecture of The Islamic Period of Iran.
Introduction
With the beginning of the Islamic era and the restoration of human and animal depictions, the use of inscriptions with religious, literary and historical themes reached its peak with various calligraphy methods and styles. This enduring art that is inscription is still performed by artists to this day. Inscription like other historical works, suffer from various physical, chemical, biological and human damages, and from various perspectives of value, aesthetics, originality, legibility, unity and integrity they suffer serious damage. Therefore, despite the important characteristics mentioned about this category of written works, the need to pay attention to this category of work is revealed in restoration operations. The importance of paying attention to the issue among other valuable historical and cultural work is important in the sense that there is a lake of criteria in accordance with the theoretical foundations of restoration, for the restoration of areas lacking in this category of valuable written works. Although in most cases, the restoration of this category of works is often done under the supervision of restoration experts, the approach and methods of doing the work in different examples are not subject to scientific principles and are mostly tasteful and sometimes incorrect and without regard to the ruling principles, they are restored on the art of calligraphy and inscriptions and it has caused distortion and sometimes loss of the of the inscription, its values and message.
According to examples of the restoration of written inscriptions ,when the restoration of a written inscription is done incorrectly , in fact, readability , integrity and beauty ( Beauty is in harmony , balance, proportion , even beauty in observing the rules and recognizing the values and materials have been used (Qutbi, 1352, 31) the inscription is distorted and the audience , when viewing an inscription that has been incorrectly restored , gets the visual pleasure of seeing the harmony and connection between the words in an inscription will bs deprived. In fact, carrying out the restoration operation should reduce the inconsistency caused by the lack of space and help to read the work better.
Method Research
The upcoming research is applied research in terms of its purpose, because the researcher seek to obtain information that can be used in practical situations or solve a problems by means of them and obtain a solution to a problem. This research is a qualitative research in terms of method and in terms of data collection, it is based on field studies, interviews, observation and collection of documents and texts within the framework of the grounded theory method. The interview was conducted with the purposeful sampling method and until the theoretical saturation was reached 12 people were interviewed among the restoration experts, inscription artists and master traditional craftsmen. Grounded theory and systematic coding were used to analyze the interviews.
Research Background
Although restoration of inscriptions has always been one of the concerns of restorers, it seems that a comprehensive, coherent and effective study has not been done in this field. For example, the following can be mentioned: the Scientifics specialized and professional restoration community has not restoration of inscriptions of mosaic tiles in Iran (Soleimani et al., 2014), researchers have criticized the methods of restoration of mosaic tiles but there is no mention of the causes of its correct restoration. Also, sources such as Quchani (1365: 51), Bler (1394: 30) and Qader (1391: 86 &103) mention the non-original restorations of the reason for that has not been discussed. By checking the databases related to non-Persian theses, unfortunately, no example similar to the subject of this research was found. In line with above investigations, Persian sources were also carefully checked.
Conclusion
Inscriptions are one of the most important and valuable works of the Islamic period and they are a living document from different perspectives such as historical, artistic etc. Restoration of inscription has always been one of the concerns of restorers. But the results of the interview and data showed that the main factor in the variety of approaches in the restoration of inscriptions and the lack of attention to the rules and regulations of inscriptions in the process of restoration operations is self-centered empiricism. Among the traditional craftsmen and even the scribes who are somehow related to the restoration process of the inscriptions, ignorance of the restoration rules or even ignorance of the different aspects of the inscriptions can be seen. Also, looking at the conducted interviews, it can be pointed out that the role of the custodian institutions in relation to the restoration of inscription is weak, unfortunately, in this field , training courses are not held for the inscription writers and traditional masters, and it seems that by holding training courses and obliging inscription writers and traditional masters to participate in these classes, recognizing the values of the works and observing various aspects in the matter of restoration are institutionalized. Even though in most cases, restoration operations are carried out under the supervision of restoration experts unfortunately, due to the lake of standards in the restoration of inscriptions shortage areas, diversity of approaches in the restoration of inscriptions and even incorrect restorations can be seen, also, it seems that one of the challenges in the field of protection and restoration of written inscriptions is the theoretical issues related.
To the restoration of this category of valuable written works: because the theoretical reliance of the theoretical discussions of conservation and restoration is often focused on Western theorists and their studies and theories, which have been explained from the viewpoint of a group of researchers and following the statements of summits, charters and such. Especially, when these theoretical rules are put forward in a general way and without considering the spatial, temporal and cultural background, they usually face constructions. In order to correct and solve these problems, attention should be paid to the local knowledge, which can be a way forward in view of the existing knowledge in the field of Iranian architecture and the rules governing the art of inscriptions, and in order to add new concepts and foundations to the field of conservation knowledge and restoration can be considered.
Inscriptions in the decorations of building of the Islamic period have been noticed by artists since the early Islamic centuries. Overtime, inscriptions are damaged by various factors and need to be restored. Considering that every year in the country, a large amount of restoration operations are carried out on damaged historical monuments, including inscriptions. It was seen through the investigation that in most cases the restorations are tasteful and sometimes incorrect. In order to find the most important causes of incorrect restoration in written inscriptions, the qualitative method was used, and the grounded theory method was used to analyze the data. This research is practical in terms of purpose. The data was collected through field observations and interviews with 12 people related to the restoration of inscriptions and by purposeful sampling, and the data continued until theoretical saturation was reached. The results of the research showed that in addition to the lack of criteria that agree with the theoretical foundations of restorations, due to the prominence of the calligraphy and category, factors such as self-centered empiricism, the variety of viewpoints, knowledge and awareness of the traditional master craftsman and the rules of restoration and the lack of the artistic perspective of the traditional master craftsman. For various reasons, inscriptions have led to incorrect restorations, and of course, the lack of training courses by the institutions in charge of restoration has also been involved. Also, the variety of approaches in the restoration of inscriptions and lack of attention to the rules governing the art of inscriptions are considered as the most important consequences of the restoration of inscriptions.
Keywords: Written Inscription, Incorrect Restoration, Foundation Data Theory, Architecture of The Islamic Period of Iran.
Introduction
With the beginning of the Islamic era and the restoration of human and animal depictions, the use of inscriptions with religious, literary and historical themes reached its peak with various calligraphy methods and styles. This enduring art that is inscription is still performed by artists to this day. Inscription like other historical works, suffer from various physical, chemical, biological and human damages, and from various perspectives of value, aesthetics, originality, legibility, unity and integrity they suffer serious damage. Therefore, despite the important characteristics mentioned about this category of written works, the need to pay attention to this category of work is revealed in restoration operations. The importance of paying attention to the issue among other valuable historical and cultural work is important in the sense that there is a lake of criteria in accordance with the theoretical foundations of restoration, for the restoration of areas lacking in this category of valuable written works. Although in most cases, the restoration of this category of works is often done under the supervision of restoration experts, the approach and methods of doing the work in different examples are not subject to scientific principles and are mostly tasteful and sometimes incorrect and without regard to the ruling principles, they are restored on the art of calligraphy and inscriptions and it has caused distortion and sometimes loss of the of the inscription, its values and message.
According to examples of the restoration of written inscriptions ,when the restoration of a written inscription is done incorrectly , in fact, readability , integrity and beauty ( Beauty is in harmony , balance, proportion , even beauty in observing the rules and recognizing the values and materials have been used (Qutbi, 1352, 31) the inscription is distorted and the audience , when viewing an inscription that has been incorrectly restored , gets the visual pleasure of seeing the harmony and connection between the words in an inscription will bs deprived. In fact, carrying out the restoration operation should reduce the inconsistency caused by the lack of space and help to read the work better.
Method Research
The upcoming research is applied research in terms of its purpose, because the researcher seek to obtain information that can be used in practical situations or solve a problems by means of them and obtain a solution to a problem. This research is a qualitative research in terms of method and in terms of data collection, it is based on field studies, interviews, observation and collection of documents and texts within the framework of the grounded theory method. The interview was conducted with the purposeful sampling method and until the theoretical saturation was reached 12 people were interviewed among the restoration experts, inscription artists and master traditional craftsmen. Grounded theory and systematic coding were used to analyze the interviews.
Research Background
Although restoration of inscriptions has always been one of the concerns of restorers, it seems that a comprehensive, coherent and effective study has not been done in this field. For example, the following can be mentioned: the Scientifics specialized and professional restoration community has not restoration of inscriptions of mosaic tiles in Iran (Soleimani et al., 2014), researchers have criticized the methods of restoration of mosaic tiles but there is no mention of the causes of its correct restoration. Also, sources such as Quchani (1365: 51), Bler (1394: 30) and Qader (1391: 86 &103) mention the non-original restorations of the reason for that has not been discussed. By checking the databases related to non-Persian theses, unfortunately, no example similar to the subject of this research was found. In line with above investigations, Persian sources were also carefully checked.
Conclusion
Inscriptions are one of the most important and valuable works of the Islamic period and they are a living document from different perspectives such as historical, artistic etc. Restoration of inscription has always been one of the concerns of restorers. But the results of the interview and data showed that the main factor in the variety of approaches in the restoration of inscriptions and the lack of attention to the rules and regulations of inscriptions in the process of restoration operations is self-centered empiricism. Among the traditional craftsmen and even the scribes who are somehow related to the restoration process of the inscriptions, ignorance of the restoration rules or even ignorance of the different aspects of the inscriptions can be seen. Also, looking at the conducted interviews, it can be pointed out that the role of the custodian institutions in relation to the restoration of inscription is weak, unfortunately, in this field , training courses are not held for the inscription writers and traditional masters, and it seems that by holding training courses and obliging inscription writers and traditional masters to participate in these classes, recognizing the values of the works and observing various aspects in the matter of restoration are institutionalized. Even though in most cases, restoration operations are carried out under the supervision of restoration experts unfortunately, due to the lake of standards in the restoration of inscriptions shortage areas, diversity of approaches in the restoration of inscriptions and even incorrect restorations can be seen, also, it seems that one of the challenges in the field of protection and restoration of written inscriptions is the theoretical issues related.
To the restoration of this category of valuable written works: because the theoretical reliance of the theoretical discussions of conservation and restoration is often focused on Western theorists and their studies and theories, which have been explained from the viewpoint of a group of researchers and following the statements of summits, charters and such. Especially, when these theoretical rules are put forward in a general way and without considering the spatial, temporal and cultural background, they usually face constructions. In order to correct and solve these problems, attention should be paid to the local knowledge, which can be a way forward in view of the existing knowledge in the field of Iranian architecture and the rules governing the art of inscriptions, and in order to add new concepts and foundations to the field of conservation knowledge and restoration can be considered.
Esmail Hemati Azandaryani, Ali Khaksar,
year 6, Issue 20 (9-2022)
year 6, Issue 20 (9-2022)
Abstract
Abstract
The troglodytic architecture complex in Arzanfoud (Arzanpoul) is located 30 km southeast of Hamadan, 2 km south of Arzanfoud village. The complex accidentally recovered following mining activities at 2010. There have been four seasons of archaeological activities including excavations, documentation, earthworks, and identifications. According archaeological activities, more than 70 troglodytic spaces revealed that dated to historic and Islamic periods relying on pottery findings. There are questions on variations, forms, techniques, and decorations including 1) what dates are pottery types of troglodytic spaces? 2) What are common techniques and decorations of potteries? Considering descriptive-analytic method, findings, collected of fieldworks and bibliographic studies, qualitatively analyzed. Conclusions indicate that pottery findings date to historic period, Parthian and Sassanid, and middle and late Islamic periods (Seljuq, Ilkhanid, Timurid, and Safavid). Among the most important historic potteries are Clinky wares, grooved rims, and hump-like rims; while the most significant Islamic potteries are stamped wares, painting underglaze, lusterwares, Sgraphiato, enamled wares, and blue and white. Regional soils studies, and nearby Mica and Quartz mines indicate that potteries with Mica and Quartz in temper are, probably, local productions, while the others are probably exotic.
Keywords: Hamadan, Arzanfoud (Arzanpoul), Handmade Troglodytic Architecture, pottery, Historical, Islamic.
Introduction
One of the goals of archaeological research is the study of cultural changes, and in this regard, examining and analyzing the material culture of the past is of particular importance. In the term of archaeologists, these remains are called data. In order to achieve the general goal of archeology - the reconstruction of the past life of mankind, these data must be examined in a specific and logical framework and turned into evidence. In general, pottery is one of the most abundant archaeological data, which is of particular importance in any archaeological analysis. Due to its abundant and continuous production, pottery has always adopted various transformations and innovations in its shape and role, some of which have arisen due to the development and internal growth of cultures over time. Another part of these changes emerges due to cultural and economic links with far and near societies. In fact, pottery is considered the best cultural indicator in order to know societies and it is very important for communication between different units of a regional culture on the one hand and trans-regional cultures on the other hand. Now, according to the above-mentioned materials and referring to the importance of pottery in the process of examining and studying the pottery of different periods in various areas, it is necessary to carefully analyze the typology of pottery and the decorations used in the pottery according to the methods of pottery making and analysis to provide a logical answer to the following questions: 1) what dates are pottery types of troglodytic spaces? 2) What are common techniques and decorations of potteries? Considering descriptive-analytic method, findings, collected of fieldworks and bibliographic studies, qualitatively analyzed.
Discussion
The unique types of this architecture can be set handmade troglodytic underground architectural complex at Arzanfoud in Hamadan noted that was discovered by accident in 2010 as a result of mineral exploration activity. This area is located 30 km South East of Hamadan city (provincial capital) and is situated 2 kilometers south of a village with the same name. The area of the Alvand Mountains, located in the heart of pristine nature and intact. As you explore the collection of handmade troglodytic of Iran was faced with numerous questions, The most important questions were raised about whether this complex of Arzanfoud when created, What time period was used in this series as well as a vast range of different spaces for what purpose and the user was created. According to the first season of archaeological research questions in this category sponsored Ali Khaksar was started in 2010 and the second and third chapters of this research will follow in subsequent years 2011 and 2015. This research programs (identification, documentation, clearing and archeological excavations) in this area were conducted. These results identify more than 70 hand-made underground spaces including rooms and halls with variable depth from 3 to 7 meters. Several hypotheses have been raised in line with spaces this set of user talk ritual, habitat, refuge and exile has been the case so far as the draw of any archaeological activity has been approved. Also according to studies cannot accurately determine the time to create this collection, but this complex be used to set time periods during the middle and late Parthian and Islamic centuries been used on. The underground spaces are connected to the surface via stairs-like entries in the schistose bedrock. This set covers all the spaces are arched, it works well in most areas, this collection strikes a sharp object (possibly pick) clearly observed. It also sets the foundation lamp oil lighting spaces that were in the wall spaces. In some places the walls of adjacent platforms (made from stone-ground or wall stile), water channels and sources are visible. It should be noted that the surface area of architecture can be seen as evidence that more archaeological research is needed to provide comments.
The pottery found in the Arzanfoud area can be divided into two groups of historical periods, including the Parthian and Sasanian periods, as well as the Islamic period. Parthian period pottery includes types: Clinky, Pottery jar with one vertical handle and jar with two vertical handle; Sassanid period pottery includes types; the plate with a simple flat edge turned outwards, the bowl with a Pigeon head rim, Bowls with convex and prominent edges and Pottery with grooved edges (three edges).
potteries of the Islamic period can be divided into two main types, including unglazed (Decorations removed and added on pottery, bottom image, silver colored mica particles on pottery, Pottery with carvings, . potteries with a pattern of birds in a circle, Stamped pottery from Arzanfoud and comparable samples and Pottery with inlaid decoration) and glazed (Pottery with single-color of lapis lazuli glaze, Potteries with a prominent pattern under monocolor glaze, Sgraffiato pottery, Zarinfam pottery, Pottery with animal motifs, underglaze painting type, Pottery with underglaze painting (Ghalam Meshki), Pottery with underglaze painting and Pottery with blue and white glaze).
Conclusion
The pottery found in the Arzanfoud area can be divided into two groups of historical periods, including the Parthian and Sasanian periods, as well as the Islamic period. Parthian period pottery includes types: Clinky, Pottery jar with one vertical handle and jar with two vertical handle; Sassanid period pottery includes types; the plate with a simple flat edge turned outwards, the bowl with a Pigeon head rim, Bowls with convex and prominent edges and Pottery with grooved edges (three edges).
The pottery of the Islamic period of this site belongs to the middle and late Islamic centuries (Seljuq, Ilkhanid, Timurid and Safavid), among which the pottery of the Ilkhanid period in Arzanfoud is of considerable importance. According to the archaeological research conducted in Arzanfoud, no evidence of a pottery kiln has been found so far, but surface evidence and findings related to pottery production have been observed in the area. On the other hand, silver and gold mica and quartz particles can be seen in much earthenware, which, due to the location of mica and quartz mines in the area and the vicinity of the area, can probably be the production of some earthenware in the area. One of the interesting points of interest in the historical and Islamic pottery of Arzanfod is the great similarity with the pottery types of other historical and Islamic sites of Hamadan province, including: Hegmataneh Tape, Zainoabad Tape of Bahar, Laodiceh of Nahavand and especially the architecture of the Samen underground handmade troglodytic in Malayer, which has the most similarity with Arzanfod’s pottery findings, which shows extensive cultural connections.
The troglodytic architecture complex in Arzanfoud (Arzanpoul) is located 30 km southeast of Hamadan, 2 km south of Arzanfoud village. The complex accidentally recovered following mining activities at 2010. There have been four seasons of archaeological activities including excavations, documentation, earthworks, and identifications. According archaeological activities, more than 70 troglodytic spaces revealed that dated to historic and Islamic periods relying on pottery findings. There are questions on variations, forms, techniques, and decorations including 1) what dates are pottery types of troglodytic spaces? 2) What are common techniques and decorations of potteries? Considering descriptive-analytic method, findings, collected of fieldworks and bibliographic studies, qualitatively analyzed. Conclusions indicate that pottery findings date to historic period, Parthian and Sassanid, and middle and late Islamic periods (Seljuq, Ilkhanid, Timurid, and Safavid). Among the most important historic potteries are Clinky wares, grooved rims, and hump-like rims; while the most significant Islamic potteries are stamped wares, painting underglaze, lusterwares, Sgraphiato, enamled wares, and blue and white. Regional soils studies, and nearby Mica and Quartz mines indicate that potteries with Mica and Quartz in temper are, probably, local productions, while the others are probably exotic.
Keywords: Hamadan, Arzanfoud (Arzanpoul), Handmade Troglodytic Architecture, pottery, Historical, Islamic.
Introduction
One of the goals of archaeological research is the study of cultural changes, and in this regard, examining and analyzing the material culture of the past is of particular importance. In the term of archaeologists, these remains are called data. In order to achieve the general goal of archeology - the reconstruction of the past life of mankind, these data must be examined in a specific and logical framework and turned into evidence. In general, pottery is one of the most abundant archaeological data, which is of particular importance in any archaeological analysis. Due to its abundant and continuous production, pottery has always adopted various transformations and innovations in its shape and role, some of which have arisen due to the development and internal growth of cultures over time. Another part of these changes emerges due to cultural and economic links with far and near societies. In fact, pottery is considered the best cultural indicator in order to know societies and it is very important for communication between different units of a regional culture on the one hand and trans-regional cultures on the other hand. Now, according to the above-mentioned materials and referring to the importance of pottery in the process of examining and studying the pottery of different periods in various areas, it is necessary to carefully analyze the typology of pottery and the decorations used in the pottery according to the methods of pottery making and analysis to provide a logical answer to the following questions: 1) what dates are pottery types of troglodytic spaces? 2) What are common techniques and decorations of potteries? Considering descriptive-analytic method, findings, collected of fieldworks and bibliographic studies, qualitatively analyzed.
Discussion
The unique types of this architecture can be set handmade troglodytic underground architectural complex at Arzanfoud in Hamadan noted that was discovered by accident in 2010 as a result of mineral exploration activity. This area is located 30 km South East of Hamadan city (provincial capital) and is situated 2 kilometers south of a village with the same name. The area of the Alvand Mountains, located in the heart of pristine nature and intact. As you explore the collection of handmade troglodytic of Iran was faced with numerous questions, The most important questions were raised about whether this complex of Arzanfoud when created, What time period was used in this series as well as a vast range of different spaces for what purpose and the user was created. According to the first season of archaeological research questions in this category sponsored Ali Khaksar was started in 2010 and the second and third chapters of this research will follow in subsequent years 2011 and 2015. This research programs (identification, documentation, clearing and archeological excavations) in this area were conducted. These results identify more than 70 hand-made underground spaces including rooms and halls with variable depth from 3 to 7 meters. Several hypotheses have been raised in line with spaces this set of user talk ritual, habitat, refuge and exile has been the case so far as the draw of any archaeological activity has been approved. Also according to studies cannot accurately determine the time to create this collection, but this complex be used to set time periods during the middle and late Parthian and Islamic centuries been used on. The underground spaces are connected to the surface via stairs-like entries in the schistose bedrock. This set covers all the spaces are arched, it works well in most areas, this collection strikes a sharp object (possibly pick) clearly observed. It also sets the foundation lamp oil lighting spaces that were in the wall spaces. In some places the walls of adjacent platforms (made from stone-ground or wall stile), water channels and sources are visible. It should be noted that the surface area of architecture can be seen as evidence that more archaeological research is needed to provide comments.
The pottery found in the Arzanfoud area can be divided into two groups of historical periods, including the Parthian and Sasanian periods, as well as the Islamic period. Parthian period pottery includes types: Clinky, Pottery jar with one vertical handle and jar with two vertical handle; Sassanid period pottery includes types; the plate with a simple flat edge turned outwards, the bowl with a Pigeon head rim, Bowls with convex and prominent edges and Pottery with grooved edges (three edges).
potteries of the Islamic period can be divided into two main types, including unglazed (Decorations removed and added on pottery, bottom image, silver colored mica particles on pottery, Pottery with carvings, . potteries with a pattern of birds in a circle, Stamped pottery from Arzanfoud and comparable samples and Pottery with inlaid decoration) and glazed (Pottery with single-color of lapis lazuli glaze, Potteries with a prominent pattern under monocolor glaze, Sgraffiato pottery, Zarinfam pottery, Pottery with animal motifs, underglaze painting type, Pottery with underglaze painting (Ghalam Meshki), Pottery with underglaze painting and Pottery with blue and white glaze).
Conclusion
The pottery found in the Arzanfoud area can be divided into two groups of historical periods, including the Parthian and Sasanian periods, as well as the Islamic period. Parthian period pottery includes types: Clinky, Pottery jar with one vertical handle and jar with two vertical handle; Sassanid period pottery includes types; the plate with a simple flat edge turned outwards, the bowl with a Pigeon head rim, Bowls with convex and prominent edges and Pottery with grooved edges (three edges).
The pottery of the Islamic period of this site belongs to the middle and late Islamic centuries (Seljuq, Ilkhanid, Timurid and Safavid), among which the pottery of the Ilkhanid period in Arzanfoud is of considerable importance. According to the archaeological research conducted in Arzanfoud, no evidence of a pottery kiln has been found so far, but surface evidence and findings related to pottery production have been observed in the area. On the other hand, silver and gold mica and quartz particles can be seen in much earthenware, which, due to the location of mica and quartz mines in the area and the vicinity of the area, can probably be the production of some earthenware in the area. One of the interesting points of interest in the historical and Islamic pottery of Arzanfod is the great similarity with the pottery types of other historical and Islamic sites of Hamadan province, including: Hegmataneh Tape, Zainoabad Tape of Bahar, Laodiceh of Nahavand and especially the architecture of the Samen underground handmade troglodytic in Malayer, which has the most similarity with Arzanfod’s pottery findings, which shows extensive cultural connections.
Thaer Rezazadeh,
year 6, Issue 21 (12-2022)
year 6, Issue 21 (12-2022)
Abstract
Abstract
Abstract: This essay attempts to do a typological study on one of the most applicable lighting devices -i.e. Oil Lamps- of the early Islamic period from Iran. Although introduction of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps goes back to the pre Islamic period of Iran, the most remarkable changes in the design process of these products appeared during this period. Therefore, the main goal of this research is to study and follow design process of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps of early Islamic period. This essay enquires about the most important developments on the history of Oil Lamps design. In order to reach the goal of this study and to do this research I have used descriptive analytical methodology of research and collected a great deal of needed information by desk study methods of data gathering. In addition, in order to delineate as good as possible the changes and developments appeared on various types of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period, here in this study I decided to use a specific framework for systematically studying history of objects’ design suggested by an Indian university professor named Kumar Vyas. According to Vyas, in order to be a major landmark a moment in the history of an object should indicate five kinds of changes: changes in design and structure of devices; changes in appearance of them; changes in methods of manufacturing; changes in the ways they have been used; and finally changes in objects’ relationship with their users. Therefore, one can categorize the most important developments in designs and types of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps in three main groups. The first group includes those ceramic Oil Lamps with open, bowl shaped bodies and projected wick holders; Second group have globular enclosed bodies with elongated tubular wick holders. Finally, footed lamps with central stem on a plate shaped stand recognize the last group of our typology of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period.
Keywords: Islamic Pottery, Iranian Pottery, Ceramic Oil Lamps, Lighting Devices.
Introduction
Oil Lamps or “chiraghs” were one of popular lighting devices of early Islamic period in Iran. They were kind of a container that simply worked with a vegetal wick and animal oil and thus answered their users’ needs. Although introduction and application of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps goes back to the pre Islamic and especially the early historic period of Iran, but because of the development and improvement of related technologies of pottery in the Islamic period, the most remarkable changes in the design process of these products appeared during this period. It goes without saying that both design and production of ceramic devices were mostly relied on the advanced technology. During early Islamic period, it seems that Iranian has used pre-Islamic and specially Sasanid forms. However, gradually there has occurred considerable progresses in making and decorating potteries, promoting mostly their visual and aesthetic effects along with enhancing their quality of production. While ceramic Oil Lamps were among most popular lighting devices of early Islamic period in Iran, after Mongol invasion in the early thirteenth century their application has been reduced and ceased.
The main goal of this research is to study and follow design process of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps of early Islamic period. The question I am going to answer here is how the design of mentioned devices has changed during time and under what conditions. Here, studying the most important developments and changes in design styles of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period, I tend to trace and delineate the evolution path passed through by these devices from the beginning of the Islamic period until the end of 12th / 6th century.
Materials And Method: In order to reach the goal of this study, after reviewing related literature and explaining specific methodology of research, first I have discussed the terminology of Oil Lamps in Persian and tried to describe its function. Then in two parts, I have structured my discussions. In the first part of the body, I have divided forms of ceramic Oil Lamps of Islamic period into three main groups. Then, in the next part, I have tried to explain the major distinctions between these groups by Kumar Vyas’s criteria. These are changes in design and structure of devices; changes in appearance of them; changes in methods of manufacturing; changes in the ways they have been used; and finally changes in objects’ relationship with their users.
Data
Collecting data for this study has been conducted by desk studies, including materials from books and websites. These data, here, has been analyzed qualitatively.
Data collection techniques refer to methods used to collect and analyze different forms of data. Collecting data for this study has been conducted by desk studies, including materials from books and websites. These data, here, has been analyzed qualitatively. In this study, data are made up of material evidences of ceramic oil lamps from early and middle Islamic periods. These evidences are accessible sometimes directly through museums and collection of Islamic or Persian art all over the world and sometimes indirectly through reproduction of those materials within catalogues of Islamic ceramics available in libraries. First of all it was very important to distinguish between oil lamps and other kind of lamps prevalent in Iranian art of Islamic period. Then one should consider historical order of lamps so it could be possible arranging them into two groups of early and middle Islamic period. Whitin each category, there exist many forms of lamps with multiple ways of decorating them including monochrome glaze or underglaze decorations. Then the researcher has to sort these evidences by their historical period, first, and by their forms and shapes, second. Furthermore they should consider their decoration in order to reach a better understanding of them. In order to delineate as good as possible the changes and developments appeared on various types of Iranian ceramic oil lamps from early Islamic period, here in this study I decided to use a specific framework for systematically studying history of objects’ design suggested by an Indian university professor named Kumar Vyas. According to Vyas, in order to be a major landmark a moment in the history of an object should indicate five kinds of changes: changes in design and structure of devices; changes in appearance of them; changes in methods of manufacturing; changes in the ways they have been used; and finally changes in objects’ relationship with their users.
Discussion
One can categorize the most important developments in designs and types of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps in the early Islamic period in three main groups. The first group includes those ceramic Oil Lamps with open, bowl shaped bodies and projected wick holders. In these lamps, reservoir and wick holder are closely connected to each other. Second group of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period have globular enclosed bodies with elongated tubular wick holders. Here, wick holders earn distinctive characteristic of its own and it somehow separate formally from reservoir. Finally, footed lamps with central stem on a plate shaped stand recognize the last group of our typology of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period. The form of main part in lamps of this group is not so different from that of first group. However, having been elevated by a tall cylindrical column has made the function of lamps of this group much more distinctive than those of other groups.
Drawing upon Kumar Vyas’ approach to systematically studying history of objects’ design, one can analyze the main distinctive aspects of these three types of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from five point of view: changes in design and structure of devices; changes in appearance of them; changes in methods of manufacturing; changes in the ways they have been used; and finally changes in objects’ relationship with their users. Design and structure of Oil Lamps from these groups are more remarkable that changes in other aspects. However, the most important development during the history of these Oil Lamps is their way they have been seen and thus used by their owners. Certainly, Simple forms of lamps from first group did not need as complicated treatment as it was necessary dealing with lamps of third group.
Conclusion
Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps in the early Islamic period can be categorized in three main groups. The first group includes those ceramic Oil Lamps with open, bowl shaped bodies and projected wick holders; Second group of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period have globular enclosed bodies with elongated tubular wick holders. Finally, footed lamps with central stem on a plate shaped stand recognize the last group of our typology of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period. Here, in this essay, distinctive aspects of these groups have been analyzed from five point of view, according to Kumar Vyas’ approach to history of objects design. Design and structure of these three types are distinctive in their form of body and wick holder. Using different kinds of glazes and painting techniques has made the appearances of Oil Lamps somehow unique. Ceramic Oil Lamps of these groups also have been produced by various processes. Furthermore, the way they have been used varied form lamps of one group to the other. Finally, mention has to be made of the relationship between users with every lamps of each group. Based on design and appearance of lamps this relationship has proven to be remarkably discrete.
Abstract: This essay attempts to do a typological study on one of the most applicable lighting devices -i.e. Oil Lamps- of the early Islamic period from Iran. Although introduction of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps goes back to the pre Islamic period of Iran, the most remarkable changes in the design process of these products appeared during this period. Therefore, the main goal of this research is to study and follow design process of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps of early Islamic period. This essay enquires about the most important developments on the history of Oil Lamps design. In order to reach the goal of this study and to do this research I have used descriptive analytical methodology of research and collected a great deal of needed information by desk study methods of data gathering. In addition, in order to delineate as good as possible the changes and developments appeared on various types of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period, here in this study I decided to use a specific framework for systematically studying history of objects’ design suggested by an Indian university professor named Kumar Vyas. According to Vyas, in order to be a major landmark a moment in the history of an object should indicate five kinds of changes: changes in design and structure of devices; changes in appearance of them; changes in methods of manufacturing; changes in the ways they have been used; and finally changes in objects’ relationship with their users. Therefore, one can categorize the most important developments in designs and types of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps in three main groups. The first group includes those ceramic Oil Lamps with open, bowl shaped bodies and projected wick holders; Second group have globular enclosed bodies with elongated tubular wick holders. Finally, footed lamps with central stem on a plate shaped stand recognize the last group of our typology of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period.
Keywords: Islamic Pottery, Iranian Pottery, Ceramic Oil Lamps, Lighting Devices.
Introduction
Oil Lamps or “chiraghs” were one of popular lighting devices of early Islamic period in Iran. They were kind of a container that simply worked with a vegetal wick and animal oil and thus answered their users’ needs. Although introduction and application of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps goes back to the pre Islamic and especially the early historic period of Iran, but because of the development and improvement of related technologies of pottery in the Islamic period, the most remarkable changes in the design process of these products appeared during this period. It goes without saying that both design and production of ceramic devices were mostly relied on the advanced technology. During early Islamic period, it seems that Iranian has used pre-Islamic and specially Sasanid forms. However, gradually there has occurred considerable progresses in making and decorating potteries, promoting mostly their visual and aesthetic effects along with enhancing their quality of production. While ceramic Oil Lamps were among most popular lighting devices of early Islamic period in Iran, after Mongol invasion in the early thirteenth century their application has been reduced and ceased.
The main goal of this research is to study and follow design process of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps of early Islamic period. The question I am going to answer here is how the design of mentioned devices has changed during time and under what conditions. Here, studying the most important developments and changes in design styles of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period, I tend to trace and delineate the evolution path passed through by these devices from the beginning of the Islamic period until the end of 12th / 6th century.
Materials And Method: In order to reach the goal of this study, after reviewing related literature and explaining specific methodology of research, first I have discussed the terminology of Oil Lamps in Persian and tried to describe its function. Then in two parts, I have structured my discussions. In the first part of the body, I have divided forms of ceramic Oil Lamps of Islamic period into three main groups. Then, in the next part, I have tried to explain the major distinctions between these groups by Kumar Vyas’s criteria. These are changes in design and structure of devices; changes in appearance of them; changes in methods of manufacturing; changes in the ways they have been used; and finally changes in objects’ relationship with their users.
Data
Collecting data for this study has been conducted by desk studies, including materials from books and websites. These data, here, has been analyzed qualitatively.
Data collection techniques refer to methods used to collect and analyze different forms of data. Collecting data for this study has been conducted by desk studies, including materials from books and websites. These data, here, has been analyzed qualitatively. In this study, data are made up of material evidences of ceramic oil lamps from early and middle Islamic periods. These evidences are accessible sometimes directly through museums and collection of Islamic or Persian art all over the world and sometimes indirectly through reproduction of those materials within catalogues of Islamic ceramics available in libraries. First of all it was very important to distinguish between oil lamps and other kind of lamps prevalent in Iranian art of Islamic period. Then one should consider historical order of lamps so it could be possible arranging them into two groups of early and middle Islamic period. Whitin each category, there exist many forms of lamps with multiple ways of decorating them including monochrome glaze or underglaze decorations. Then the researcher has to sort these evidences by their historical period, first, and by their forms and shapes, second. Furthermore they should consider their decoration in order to reach a better understanding of them. In order to delineate as good as possible the changes and developments appeared on various types of Iranian ceramic oil lamps from early Islamic period, here in this study I decided to use a specific framework for systematically studying history of objects’ design suggested by an Indian university professor named Kumar Vyas. According to Vyas, in order to be a major landmark a moment in the history of an object should indicate five kinds of changes: changes in design and structure of devices; changes in appearance of them; changes in methods of manufacturing; changes in the ways they have been used; and finally changes in objects’ relationship with their users.
Discussion
One can categorize the most important developments in designs and types of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps in the early Islamic period in three main groups. The first group includes those ceramic Oil Lamps with open, bowl shaped bodies and projected wick holders. In these lamps, reservoir and wick holder are closely connected to each other. Second group of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period have globular enclosed bodies with elongated tubular wick holders. Here, wick holders earn distinctive characteristic of its own and it somehow separate formally from reservoir. Finally, footed lamps with central stem on a plate shaped stand recognize the last group of our typology of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period. The form of main part in lamps of this group is not so different from that of first group. However, having been elevated by a tall cylindrical column has made the function of lamps of this group much more distinctive than those of other groups.
Drawing upon Kumar Vyas’ approach to systematically studying history of objects’ design, one can analyze the main distinctive aspects of these three types of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from five point of view: changes in design and structure of devices; changes in appearance of them; changes in methods of manufacturing; changes in the ways they have been used; and finally changes in objects’ relationship with their users. Design and structure of Oil Lamps from these groups are more remarkable that changes in other aspects. However, the most important development during the history of these Oil Lamps is their way they have been seen and thus used by their owners. Certainly, Simple forms of lamps from first group did not need as complicated treatment as it was necessary dealing with lamps of third group.
Conclusion
Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps in the early Islamic period can be categorized in three main groups. The first group includes those ceramic Oil Lamps with open, bowl shaped bodies and projected wick holders; Second group of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period have globular enclosed bodies with elongated tubular wick holders. Finally, footed lamps with central stem on a plate shaped stand recognize the last group of our typology of Iranian ceramic Oil Lamps from early Islamic period. Here, in this essay, distinctive aspects of these groups have been analyzed from five point of view, according to Kumar Vyas’ approach to history of objects design. Design and structure of these three types are distinctive in their form of body and wick holder. Using different kinds of glazes and painting techniques has made the appearances of Oil Lamps somehow unique. Ceramic Oil Lamps of these groups also have been produced by various processes. Furthermore, the way they have been used varied form lamps of one group to the other. Finally, mention has to be made of the relationship between users with every lamps of each group. Based on design and appearance of lamps this relationship has proven to be remarkably discrete.
Reza Naseri, Seyed Mehdi Miri,
year 6, Issue 22 (2-2023)
year 6, Issue 22 (2-2023)
Abstract
Abstract
Abstract: Wood has been a suitable raw material for the expression of taste, talent, art and creativity of craftsmen and artists in different periods. Iranian artists in the Islamic period, like other industries, have created the most exquisite artworks made of wood. During the Islamic period, in the construction of the architectural elements of religious buildings, such as wood turning, fret work, Gereh Chini, and Khatam’s artworks were made of wood, which studying on them in terms of the evolution and transformation of wood-related industries as material and cultural remains of the Islamic period, as well as analyzing the themes of their religious motifs and inscriptions, has been of special importance. Considering the importance of this subject, not many studies have been conducted in this field of research. During the archaeological survey that was carried out in 2014 in order to identify the cultural historical monuments of Bavanat city, many wooden artworks were identified and observed, and the upcoming research is in line with the introduction and analysis of these findings. In this regard, the questions of this research are: What wooden artworks have been left from the Islamic period of Bavanat, and what are the decorative elements and themes of their inscriptions? From Jame Mosque of Bavanat and holy shrine of Hamzeh of Bazm, various hand-made wooden structures have remained, including doors, windows, pulpits, and wooden latticework, the delicacy and proficiency in their construction are remarkable. Since the two studied buildings, the mosque and holy shrine, have religious uses the general inscriptions also included Quranic verses, Shahadatein, Shahadat-e Salaseh, Salavat and the names of the Imams, which shows the influence of Shia religion on the industry and art of this period.
Keywords: Islamic Period, Bavanat, Fret Work, Gereh Chini, Pulpit.
Introduction
Wooden objects due to their nature, in most cases, after losing their functions, are used as fuel for the fire, which is one of the main factors that makes the findings of this industry very rare. Unfortunately, not many studies have been done on Iran’s wood industries, and the studies that have been done are case-based studies. The wooden artworks in the Jame Mosque of Shiraz, which belongs to the period of Amr-i Laith Saffari (first half of the third century A.H.), can be considered one of the oldest artworks of wood crafts left in Iran (Mehrpooya, 1997: 197). From the 6th century A.H., wooden artworks such as the pulpit of Mashkol village in Ardabil province with the construction dating back to 541 AH (Maleki Galandouz & Mohammadi, 2012), The wooden door of Bayazid Bastam Mosque dated 707 to 709 A.H., the pulpit in Jame Mosque of Nain with the date of 711 A.H., the wooden Qur’an stand in the Metropolitan Museum dated to 761 A.H., the coffin (box) of Hazrat-e Abdol Azim shrine (Mehrpooya, 1997: 200; Blair & Bloom, 2002, 54; Dimand, 2004: 123). With the beginning of the Safavid period, many produced works of art were mostly included wooden doors with geometric and limited animal decorations, Sash Windows (Orosi), wooden frames of the ceiling, wooden columns, wooden latticework, coffins, wood inlayand fret work. (Attarzadeh,1995: 18; Dimand, 2004: 125, Sedighiyan & Sadeghi, 2013: 59). During the archaeological survey in Bavanat in 2014, various wooden crafts were observed, which shows the taste and art of this region in the production of wooden artworks. Although the background of this art in this region is not very clear, through historical sources, we can understand the centrality of this region in the Qajar period. In the book “Cities and Trade of Iran in the Qajar Period” by Keith Edward Abbott, he has mentioned the products of the Bavanat wood industry. Considering the importance of wooden crafts among the visual arts and the role of themes of inscriptions in understanding the thoughts of religious beliefs of the Islamic era, in this paper, an attempt is made to investigate and introduce the wooden artworks of this region.
Archaeological Survey of Bavanat
Bavanat city is located in the northeast of Fars province with Bavanat city as its center. Following the surveys in different regions of Iran in the 1930s, Stein made brief surveys and sounding in Bavanat (Stein, 1936). Following the survey of the Marvast Dam basin, Helwing and Askari Chavardi visited several sites of Monj in 2006 (Helwing, 2007). The first season of the archaeological survey of this area took place in April and May 2014. During the survey, 200 findings were documented, which can be dated from the Neolithic period to the late Islamic period which includes Tappeh and ancient sites, historical castles, ritual places of the historical period, mosques, bridges, cemeteries, mills, rock carvings, ancient mines and sites of slags (Khanipour et al., 2018).
Bavanat Wood Industries
Bavanat wooden crafts include wooden containers or vessels discovered from Kan Gohar Cave, pulpit and wooden door of the Grand Mosque, latticework, doors and windows of holy shrine of Hamzeh, which will be discussed further.
Jame Mosque of Bavanat: This building is located in the center of Bavanat city, which is built in two floors. The mosque has a circular dome, which is located above Mihrab, and under the dome is an inscription of Quranic verses in Thuluth, with decorations, the script of which is the work of Mohammad Isfahani and dated 772 A.H., The delicate decorations used in the construction of the wooden pulpit of this mosque, and according to the inscription on it, have turned this historical work into one of the unique examples of Iran’s wooden arrays in the 8th century A.D. There is an inscription on the pulpit with the name of the founder and the date of its construction. this pulpit was built in 771 A.H. (Sarikhani, 2007: 63; Khanipour et al., 2021: 16-17). The wooden entrance door of the mosque is in the eastern wall, which according to the inscription dates its construction to the Safavid period.
Holy Shrine of Seyyed Shah Mirhamzeh
Holy Shrine of Seyyed Shah Mirhamzeh has located 18 km from Bavanat city, in Bazm village. This building was first included in the list of national monuments in 1936. latticework of holy shrine of Bazm is very artistically carved in wood. This latticework is decorated with relief carvings on three sides, and two inscriptions are engraved on it, indicating the name of the builder and the date of construction. On the door of latticework, there are poems indicating that it was written during the reign of Shah Abbas. The entrance door of holy shrine of is double-leaf, on top of both there is an inscription and in the middle of each one, there is a metal knocker. The outer surface is decorated with rhombus diagonal lines on each leaf of the door. The wooden door inside the holy shrine of is double-leaf that are decorated with Moaragh-kari. The door frame is carved with geometric motifs, which according to the construction, color, and type of wood, the construction of the double-leaf door is probably newer than the door frame and facade.
Kan-Gohar Cave
Kan-Gohar cave mine is located at the heights of the southern border of Bavanat Plain. In 2010, a large number of human bones and skulls, which were regularly placed there, were discovered by the residents of the region. To clarify the issue, first of all, historical sources were studied. In the historical sources, it is mentioned, after the collapse of the Ilkhanid patriarchal government and the lack of centralized power, a village in Bavanat was attacked and the villagers took refuge in a cave to save their lives. Their hiding place was revealed, so a fire was lit at the entrance of the cave, and in the resulting smoke, all the people inside the cave were killed. Some sources mention Malik Ashraf Choupani (Yazdi, 1947: 153-154; Katbi, 1985: 48-49, Samarqandi, 1996: 212) and some Ray Malik (Hafiz Ebru, 1938: 172; 1993: 206-208) as the cause of this murdering. A tray, a bowl and a wooden spoon were found in this cave, along with the existing burials, which were probably part of the dishes of these people that they took with them to the cave.
Conclusion
In the Bavanat area, there are wooden works from the 8th, 10th and 11th centuries A.H. The wooden artworks of the Kan-Gohar cave have been preserved due to their location inside the cave, and the wooden works of the Grand Mosque and holy shrine of have been preserved due to their holiness. Among the various methods of production and decoration of the wood industry, in the Bavanat region, we can observe fret work, woodturning, Gereh-Chini and Moaragh-Kari, which more than fret work is used. In terms of the function of the wooden handicrafts studied in this article, they can be divided into two categories: architecture-related necessities and everyday utensils or objects. In the construction of wooden crafts, geometric patterns and Eslimi, and in most cases, inscriptions are written on them. The read inscriptions, which are generally located on wooden artworks, were in line with the function of the buildings. In the meantime, during the Safavid period, emphasis is placed on the names of Shia imams, especially Imam Ali.
Majid Montazerzohouri, Mohsen Javeri, Dieter Weber,
year 6, Issue 22 (2-2023)
year 6, Issue 22 (2-2023)
Abstract
Abstract
The historical site of Vigol and Haraskan is located near Aran and Bidgol city in the north of Isfahan province. The archaeological studies of the first season of this site led to the identification of the central part of a fire temple and a small part of its circumambulation corridor. The second season of the archeological exploration in the fire temple was to identify other spaces around the central part of the fire temple. Archaeological studies revealed that since this fire temple was built in the urban context, it is more important than the fire temples that were built away from settlement areas. Beside architectural evidences, religious elements and decorative stucco relics found in this fire temple, the identification of several Sassanid Pahlavi inscriptions on the walls of the eastern circumambulation corridor of the fire temple and two Ostracons added to its importance. Pahlavi inscriptions founded on stucco plaster of the dado which are written in a beautiful handwriting. Unfortunately, except for a few inscriptions, most of them cannot be read and require extensive research. In this research data collection about Vigol fire temple and its Pahlavi inscriptions was done by field methods and linguistic and descriptive-analytical studies. The main questions of the research are: What is the content of Pahlavi inscriptions and what themes do they include? What period of time does the estimated date of writing these inscriptions include? Given to linguistic and archeological studies, the placement of these inscriptions inside the fire temple, the content and of them has religious themes, and according to their writing style, these inscriptions were probably written in the 7th and 8th centuries AD. According to the dating of the inscriptions, it seems that the fire temple of Vigol had a high reputation until the early Islamic centuries and was probably abandoned forever in the first of 9th AD century.
Keywords: Vigol and Haraskan, Fire Temple,Sassanan Period, Islamic Period, Pahlavi Inscription.
Introduction
Vigol ancient site has located in near Aran and Bidgol County in central of Iran (fig1). That is a vast site which covers more than 120 hectares, is currently covered with a thick accumulation of flowing sand. Archaeological excavations in the year 2010 led to the discovery of Sasanian fire temples in the site of Vigol and Hraskan, and the identification of four arches and a part of the circumambulation corridor was done in the first season of the excavation (Javari & MontazerZohouri, 2022). The second season of excavation in Vigol fire temple began in May 2021, which was aimed at identifying other spaces around the central part of the fire temple.
One of the most important evidences is the discovery of several Pahlavi inscriptions on one of dados and two walls which covered with ocher in the western corridor. These inscriptions, in addition to providing some religious statements, help us to identify the existence of the fire temple.In the procedure in the first stage, the found Pahlavi inscriptions were read, and along it, they were compared with archaeological and historical evidences. The number of inscriptions identified in this fire temple are six, but three of them are readable. Also, two pieces of written pottery (Ostracons) were also identified, which are still not readable due to high erosion.
The second season of the excavation of the fire temple was dedicated to the four-arched doorways (char taqi) of the fire temple on the north, east and west sides(fig2). In the next step, the exploration focused on identifying the spaces of ambulatory corridors in the north, east, west, and south sides around the four arches of the fire temple. Archeological studies as well as historical evidence about the fire temples led to the recognition of several architectural phases in this religious building. The second phase of the architecture of this fire temple is related to the porticoes built in the east of the fire temple and the third architectural phase is related to the period of the change of use of this fire temple in the Islamic period, when some spaces of the fire temple, such as the northern and western gates and the gates in the eastern corridor, were blocked with mud brick walls.
Inscriptions
A total of six inscriptions have been found on the walls of the eastern ambulatory corridor in the southern part, of which three inscriptions have been read. Among the six identified inscriptions, two inscriptions are on the eastern wall, one of these two inscriptions is written on the northern dado and the other is written on the upper part of the southern wall on which has an ocher cover. Four other inscriptions were written on the western of the southern part of wall of the eastern circumambulation corridor in front of the inscriptions on the eastern wall which all due to erosion are not readable (Fig3).
Inscription No. 1 located on the western wall is considered the clearest inscription in this collection, which is written on the stucco plaster of the wall with a legible and well-written script that is in five lines(Fig5). The text of the inscription was read by Professor Dieter Weber, a specialist in ancient languages, which is as follows: The text of the first inscription, according to the transliteration and reading of the inscription, has repeated and practiced writing the word “wrote” (nwbšht), which can be fallowed this word in other Pahlavi inscriptions. A number of thin pieces of plaster of this dado of the eastern wall of the Eastern ambulatory Corridor, which contain Pahlavi letters, were identified during the excavation at the side of the floor of this corridor(Table1). These thin gypsum pieces are part of the dado of the wall and contain several connected words and part of a legible and sometimes indistinct letter, which are written on the plaster using black ink with a pen, just like the original upper inscription. In terms of the dating of inscription number one and other inscriptions, according to Professor Weber, who studied this inscriptions, this writing style of Pahlavi script belongs to the late Pahlavi script, in other wise, to the early Islamic period, almost equal to 7th 8th centuries AD are relate.
Inscription No.2, this inscription is written in one line, which probably reflects a religious theme(Fig 8 ). The text of the inscription says: “(donated) to šād ruy baxt Āzarmugh”; in another sense, “it was charmingly presented to Āzarmugh”. This inscription is of special importance because it contains the name of a Zoroastrian priest of this region in the Islamic period, “Āzarmugh”. This evidence also tells about the existence of Zoroastrian religion in the early Islamic centuries in this region and the insistence of the residents of this area to preserve this religion.
‘L š’tlwdbht ’clmwk
ō šadrōybaxt Āzarmōg
Inscription number three, which is written in two lines, is still not possible to provide a consistent reading and translation due to erosion and lack of clarity(Fig 8 ).
1 KR’ MNW wlt’ý Y ZNH … l’d
2 BYN …… k’lyt …-b’k wl t’ý Y ZNH
The phonetic writing of this inscription is as follows. In this inscription, there are words that include some illegible words and some Huzvariš, which are as follows: (KR’) with the reading of “har”:(evry); (MNW) with the reading of “Ke, Keš”:(which); (BYN) with the reading of “andar”:(in,inner); and (ZNH) with the reading of “en”:(this).
Conclusion
The discovery of Pahlavi inscriptions in the fire temple of Vigol, in addition to the linguistic and grammar value in the field of linguistic studies and the Pahlavi lines of archaeological importance, is a great help for further understanding of the fire temple of Vigol as a fire temple with the rank of Adran, which is in the rank of local fire temples. The first important point is the place where these inscriptions were written in the fire temple, all of them were written in the eastern circumambulatory corridor in the southern part, on the stucco plaster of the dado of the western wall and on the ocher cover of the upper part of the eastern wall. It seems that due to the location of the porticoes as places related to religious ceremonies in the east of the fire temple and the role of the Eastern circumambulatory corridor between the interior of the fire temple and the porticoes, this corridor has gained more importance and is a suitable place to insert religious inscriptions. In addition to including statements of religious nature and Zoroastrian tradition, the inscriptions help us in determining the historical and archaeological chronology of this fire temple. Based on the studies, according to the writing method and the type of pen, these inscriptions were written in the early Islamic centuries, which prove the religious persistence of the Zoroastrian community in the region until the early Islamic centuries on the other hand, the inclusion of the name “Azarmug” as a Zoroastrian cleric (Mubed) in the early Islamic centuries in central Iran is of particular importance.
The historical site of Vigol and Haraskan is located near Aran and Bidgol city in the north of Isfahan province. The archaeological studies of the first season of this site led to the identification of the central part of a fire temple and a small part of its circumambulation corridor. The second season of the archeological exploration in the fire temple was to identify other spaces around the central part of the fire temple. Archaeological studies revealed that since this fire temple was built in the urban context, it is more important than the fire temples that were built away from settlement areas. Beside architectural evidences, religious elements and decorative stucco relics found in this fire temple, the identification of several Sassanid Pahlavi inscriptions on the walls of the eastern circumambulation corridor of the fire temple and two Ostracons added to its importance. Pahlavi inscriptions founded on stucco plaster of the dado which are written in a beautiful handwriting. Unfortunately, except for a few inscriptions, most of them cannot be read and require extensive research. In this research data collection about Vigol fire temple and its Pahlavi inscriptions was done by field methods and linguistic and descriptive-analytical studies. The main questions of the research are: What is the content of Pahlavi inscriptions and what themes do they include? What period of time does the estimated date of writing these inscriptions include? Given to linguistic and archeological studies, the placement of these inscriptions inside the fire temple, the content and of them has religious themes, and according to their writing style, these inscriptions were probably written in the 7th and 8th centuries AD. According to the dating of the inscriptions, it seems that the fire temple of Vigol had a high reputation until the early Islamic centuries and was probably abandoned forever in the first of 9th AD century.
Keywords: Vigol and Haraskan, Fire Temple,Sassanan Period, Islamic Period, Pahlavi Inscription.
Introduction
Vigol ancient site has located in near Aran and Bidgol County in central of Iran (fig1). That is a vast site which covers more than 120 hectares, is currently covered with a thick accumulation of flowing sand. Archaeological excavations in the year 2010 led to the discovery of Sasanian fire temples in the site of Vigol and Hraskan, and the identification of four arches and a part of the circumambulation corridor was done in the first season of the excavation (Javari & MontazerZohouri, 2022). The second season of excavation in Vigol fire temple began in May 2021, which was aimed at identifying other spaces around the central part of the fire temple.
One of the most important evidences is the discovery of several Pahlavi inscriptions on one of dados and two walls which covered with ocher in the western corridor. These inscriptions, in addition to providing some religious statements, help us to identify the existence of the fire temple.In the procedure in the first stage, the found Pahlavi inscriptions were read, and along it, they were compared with archaeological and historical evidences. The number of inscriptions identified in this fire temple are six, but three of them are readable. Also, two pieces of written pottery (Ostracons) were also identified, which are still not readable due to high erosion.
The second season of the excavation of the fire temple was dedicated to the four-arched doorways (char taqi) of the fire temple on the north, east and west sides(fig2). In the next step, the exploration focused on identifying the spaces of ambulatory corridors in the north, east, west, and south sides around the four arches of the fire temple. Archeological studies as well as historical evidence about the fire temples led to the recognition of several architectural phases in this religious building. The second phase of the architecture of this fire temple is related to the porticoes built in the east of the fire temple and the third architectural phase is related to the period of the change of use of this fire temple in the Islamic period, when some spaces of the fire temple, such as the northern and western gates and the gates in the eastern corridor, were blocked with mud brick walls.
Inscriptions
A total of six inscriptions have been found on the walls of the eastern ambulatory corridor in the southern part, of which three inscriptions have been read. Among the six identified inscriptions, two inscriptions are on the eastern wall, one of these two inscriptions is written on the northern dado and the other is written on the upper part of the southern wall on which has an ocher cover. Four other inscriptions were written on the western of the southern part of wall of the eastern circumambulation corridor in front of the inscriptions on the eastern wall which all due to erosion are not readable (Fig3).
Inscription No. 1 located on the western wall is considered the clearest inscription in this collection, which is written on the stucco plaster of the wall with a legible and well-written script that is in five lines(Fig5). The text of the inscription was read by Professor Dieter Weber, a specialist in ancient languages, which is as follows: The text of the first inscription, according to the transliteration and reading of the inscription, has repeated and practiced writing the word “wrote” (nwbšht), which can be fallowed this word in other Pahlavi inscriptions. A number of thin pieces of plaster of this dado of the eastern wall of the Eastern ambulatory Corridor, which contain Pahlavi letters, were identified during the excavation at the side of the floor of this corridor(Table1). These thin gypsum pieces are part of the dado of the wall and contain several connected words and part of a legible and sometimes indistinct letter, which are written on the plaster using black ink with a pen, just like the original upper inscription. In terms of the dating of inscription number one and other inscriptions, according to Professor Weber, who studied this inscriptions, this writing style of Pahlavi script belongs to the late Pahlavi script, in other wise, to the early Islamic period, almost equal to 7th 8th centuries AD are relate.
Inscription No.2, this inscription is written in one line, which probably reflects a religious theme(Fig 8 ). The text of the inscription says: “(donated) to šād ruy baxt Āzarmugh”; in another sense, “it was charmingly presented to Āzarmugh”. This inscription is of special importance because it contains the name of a Zoroastrian priest of this region in the Islamic period, “Āzarmugh”. This evidence also tells about the existence of Zoroastrian religion in the early Islamic centuries in this region and the insistence of the residents of this area to preserve this religion.
‘L š’tlwdbht ’clmwk
ō šadrōybaxt Āzarmōg
Inscription number three, which is written in two lines, is still not possible to provide a consistent reading and translation due to erosion and lack of clarity(Fig 8 ).
1 KR’ MNW wlt’ý Y ZNH … l’d
2 BYN …… k’lyt …-b’k wl t’ý Y ZNH
The phonetic writing of this inscription is as follows. In this inscription, there are words that include some illegible words and some Huzvariš, which are as follows: (KR’) with the reading of “har”:(evry); (MNW) with the reading of “Ke, Keš”:(which); (BYN) with the reading of “andar”:(in,inner); and (ZNH) with the reading of “en”:(this).
Conclusion
The discovery of Pahlavi inscriptions in the fire temple of Vigol, in addition to the linguistic and grammar value in the field of linguistic studies and the Pahlavi lines of archaeological importance, is a great help for further understanding of the fire temple of Vigol as a fire temple with the rank of Adran, which is in the rank of local fire temples. The first important point is the place where these inscriptions were written in the fire temple, all of them were written in the eastern circumambulatory corridor in the southern part, on the stucco plaster of the dado of the western wall and on the ocher cover of the upper part of the eastern wall. It seems that due to the location of the porticoes as places related to religious ceremonies in the east of the fire temple and the role of the Eastern circumambulatory corridor between the interior of the fire temple and the porticoes, this corridor has gained more importance and is a suitable place to insert religious inscriptions. In addition to including statements of religious nature and Zoroastrian tradition, the inscriptions help us in determining the historical and archaeological chronology of this fire temple. Based on the studies, according to the writing method and the type of pen, these inscriptions were written in the early Islamic centuries, which prove the religious persistence of the Zoroastrian community in the region until the early Islamic centuries on the other hand, the inclusion of the name “Azarmug” as a Zoroastrian cleric (Mubed) in the early Islamic centuries in central Iran is of particular importance.
Fakhredin Mohamadiyan, Seyed Rasool Mosavihaji, Ahmad Salehi Kakhki,
year 7, Issue 25 (12-2023)
year 7, Issue 25 (12-2023)
Abstract
Abstract
Tomb buildings are one of the most important types of Islamic architecture. Studying such a building in a geographical context gives us a meaningful understanding of these works. The vast region of Tabas, despite having a rich capacity of magnificent historical and cultural monuments, has been neglected by officials and archaeologists due to its desolation and difficult geographical conditions. In the archaeological study of the Jokhah section of Tabas, which was carried out in 2015, several buildings were identified, including a single tomb. So far, this building has not been the subject of detailed and methodical research on how the structure of architecture and dating is based on comparison with other mausoleum buildings, so the need for this research was provided. In this research, the construction method of the building has been considered according to the dome, the execution of the dome and the type of materials and the type of decorations used. The present research is based on a descriptive-analytical purpose and its nature is based on historical approaches. The methodology of accumulations is based on field studies and citation of library resources. This article tries to analyze the identity and date of construction of the tomb of Jokhah Tabas, based on archaeological findings, comparative studies and also citing written sources of the Islamic period. The results of studies show that the construction pattern of this tomb is derived from the square design of tomb buildings in Greater Khorasan in the early centuries of the Islamic period. However, by comparing material culture data and building elements with other similar works, the date of its construction can be attributed to the late sixth-early seventh century AH.
Keywords: Tomb, Architecture, Historical Identity, Middle Islamic Period, Jokhah Tabas.
Introduction
The tomb as a type of ritual-cultural architecture is the result of two-way interaction between man and nature throughout history. Hence, the study of these religious buildings in the geographical context, provides us with a meaningful understanding and recognition of them. In Islamic period of Iran, tomb buildings are considered one of the most important and numerous types of architecture after mosques. »The scope of construction of tombs with the emergence of different local governments in the early centuries of Hijri, simultaneously with the weakening of the Abbasid caliphate, became popular in the east and north of Iran« and it developed with a significant speed in all of Iran and found an important role in the social atmosphere of cities and villages. In such a way that it was considered the most important pillar of every city and village after the comprehensive mosques. Therefore, “cemeteries and their construction methods are very important from the point of view of architecture and the use of arched structures” and they require careful investigation and research in various fields. There are several individual tombs in Tabas, which according to historical sources belong to chieftains or clerics, after the domination of the eastern regions of Iran in the early centuries AH. As; Mohammad Jafar Tayar’s tomb in Azmighan, Tabas, Mir Omar’s tomb in Korit Tabas. One of these tombs, which is known in Islamic sources as the tomb of one of the Arab generals, is a tomb located in the historical site of Jokhah village. So far, this building has not been the subject of a detailed and methodical research regarding the architectural structure and dating based on comparison with other tomb buildings, hence the necessity of conducting this research. The brief research activities that have been carried out have mostly described the architecture of this tomb. In this research, the architectural style, decorations and functional materials of this building have been compared with the tombs of the middle Islamic period in the geographical area of Khorasan, which is more related in terms of time and place. Since the building does not have a building inscription, the name of the founder or the owner of the tomb, it is not possible to propose its date with certainty. Therefore, one of the goals of this research is the proposed dating of Jokhah tomb using comparative studies of other tomb buildings and referring to Islamic sources and texts.
Discussion
Jokhah village is located 24 km from Tabas city. A tomb building is located 500 meters southwest of Jokhah village, between the agricultural land and the village cemetery. The name of Jokhah was applied to this village in the contemporary period, and before that it was known as Chardeh. The name of this building goes back to the name of Jokhah village and before that it was known as the Tomb of Sephesalar or two commanders.
Jokhah Tomb is a type of domed square buildings. According to the remains of the building, the outer space consists of three parts, the body platform and the dome. The geometry of the plan and the form of Jokhah tomb reflects the design of Sassanid fire temples. The geometry of the building is square. The current height is about 23 feet and its foundation has been done on a platform. The materials used in the foundations of Jokhah tomb are made of clay, mud and plaster. Bricks are used only for cornering and doming of the building. The three doors of this building are in the front porch and have the same dimensions. This repetition on three fronts has given the building a special rhythm. There are three holes on the three sides of the building above each door. Due to the distinct shape of the entrance space, this building consists of four parts: the platform, the body, the entrance porch and the domed room.
The cover of the brick dome of Jokhah tomb has collapsed. This is comparable to the domes of the Twelve Imams of Yazd (5th century AH) and the tomb of Khosroabad Tabas (5th century AH). Based on the available visual sources, there are evidences of plastering in the throat of the dome and the formalization of the arches, which are considered as design ornaments in the Jokhah building. Two fine strips under the throat of the dome in the shape of the letter (kک/) are painted continuously and chainwise in black on a white chalk background. Another decoration includes a plaster strip in the shape of a seven-eighth or a congress in relief, and these two are among the most important arrays of this building. From around the building, unglazed pottery pieces with a simple linear and comb pattern, pottery types with turquoise and gilt underglaze were obtained (12-6 AH/12-18 M).
Conclusion
The tomb is located as a single building outside the old rural context of Jokhah. The architectural features of this tomb, in terms of design and plan form, are in the group of tombs without towers, quadrangle with domes, and functionally, it is included in the category of non-religious tombs. The architectural structure of this building is very similar to the tombs of Amir Arslan Jazeb and Chalaqd in the 5th and 6th century AH. On the other hand, it has some features, especially the doming style, with the 7th AH buildings such as the Haruniyeh building and some 8th century AH buildings such as the Jame Mosque in Varamin and Jabaliyeh in Kerman. Through field investigations and analysis of the building map, it is possible to understand that the main design of the building is taken from the map of the domed square tombs of the Seljuk period, and the additional space outside the main door of the building belongs to later periods. The design of the Jokhah tomb built by Chalaqd was more impressive than the buildings of the Seljuk period in Khorasan. Also, the common features of the building such as functional elements and its materials with the Seljuk period and plaster painting decorations have shown more compatibility with the Ilkhanid period. Referring to Islamic sources and texts also does not provide accurate information about the construction time of this building. As mentioned earlier, 5th century AH, Tabas and its surrounding areas were the refuge of Ismaili claimants, and relative peace reigned in this region. In the middle of the 6th century Hijri, most of the buildings in this area and around it were destroyed by the attack of the Seljuks. Therefore, it seems that the tomb of Jokhah was formed after the aforementioned attacks. On the other hand, due to the absence of an inscription in the Jokhah building, the identity of the owner of the tomb, based on the generalization of reliable written sources of the Islamic period, goes back to a person named Malik, one of the Arab generals in the first century of Hijri. Since this building has not been scientifically explored and excavated so far, the dating of the building has been done by studying the organs, elements and comparing other tomb buildings. Therefore, the chronology of the Jokhah tomb is suggested to the end of the 6th century to the beginning of the 7th century AH.
Acknowledgment
Mr. Dr. Bahram Anani is grateful for providing information on the area of Montaziereh, Tabas.
Observation Contribution
In this article, the first author contributed 100% and the second and third authors contributed 90% and 80%.
Conflict of Interest
In writing this article, the authors are committed to scientific and research ethics and there is no conflict of interest between them.
Tomb buildings are one of the most important types of Islamic architecture. Studying such a building in a geographical context gives us a meaningful understanding of these works. The vast region of Tabas, despite having a rich capacity of magnificent historical and cultural monuments, has been neglected by officials and archaeologists due to its desolation and difficult geographical conditions. In the archaeological study of the Jokhah section of Tabas, which was carried out in 2015, several buildings were identified, including a single tomb. So far, this building has not been the subject of detailed and methodical research on how the structure of architecture and dating is based on comparison with other mausoleum buildings, so the need for this research was provided. In this research, the construction method of the building has been considered according to the dome, the execution of the dome and the type of materials and the type of decorations used. The present research is based on a descriptive-analytical purpose and its nature is based on historical approaches. The methodology of accumulations is based on field studies and citation of library resources. This article tries to analyze the identity and date of construction of the tomb of Jokhah Tabas, based on archaeological findings, comparative studies and also citing written sources of the Islamic period. The results of studies show that the construction pattern of this tomb is derived from the square design of tomb buildings in Greater Khorasan in the early centuries of the Islamic period. However, by comparing material culture data and building elements with other similar works, the date of its construction can be attributed to the late sixth-early seventh century AH.
Keywords: Tomb, Architecture, Historical Identity, Middle Islamic Period, Jokhah Tabas.
Introduction
The tomb as a type of ritual-cultural architecture is the result of two-way interaction between man and nature throughout history. Hence, the study of these religious buildings in the geographical context, provides us with a meaningful understanding and recognition of them. In Islamic period of Iran, tomb buildings are considered one of the most important and numerous types of architecture after mosques. »The scope of construction of tombs with the emergence of different local governments in the early centuries of Hijri, simultaneously with the weakening of the Abbasid caliphate, became popular in the east and north of Iran« and it developed with a significant speed in all of Iran and found an important role in the social atmosphere of cities and villages. In such a way that it was considered the most important pillar of every city and village after the comprehensive mosques. Therefore, “cemeteries and their construction methods are very important from the point of view of architecture and the use of arched structures” and they require careful investigation and research in various fields. There are several individual tombs in Tabas, which according to historical sources belong to chieftains or clerics, after the domination of the eastern regions of Iran in the early centuries AH. As; Mohammad Jafar Tayar’s tomb in Azmighan, Tabas, Mir Omar’s tomb in Korit Tabas. One of these tombs, which is known in Islamic sources as the tomb of one of the Arab generals, is a tomb located in the historical site of Jokhah village. So far, this building has not been the subject of a detailed and methodical research regarding the architectural structure and dating based on comparison with other tomb buildings, hence the necessity of conducting this research. The brief research activities that have been carried out have mostly described the architecture of this tomb. In this research, the architectural style, decorations and functional materials of this building have been compared with the tombs of the middle Islamic period in the geographical area of Khorasan, which is more related in terms of time and place. Since the building does not have a building inscription, the name of the founder or the owner of the tomb, it is not possible to propose its date with certainty. Therefore, one of the goals of this research is the proposed dating of Jokhah tomb using comparative studies of other tomb buildings and referring to Islamic sources and texts.
Discussion
Jokhah village is located 24 km from Tabas city. A tomb building is located 500 meters southwest of Jokhah village, between the agricultural land and the village cemetery. The name of Jokhah was applied to this village in the contemporary period, and before that it was known as Chardeh. The name of this building goes back to the name of Jokhah village and before that it was known as the Tomb of Sephesalar or two commanders.
Jokhah Tomb is a type of domed square buildings. According to the remains of the building, the outer space consists of three parts, the body platform and the dome. The geometry of the plan and the form of Jokhah tomb reflects the design of Sassanid fire temples. The geometry of the building is square. The current height is about 23 feet and its foundation has been done on a platform. The materials used in the foundations of Jokhah tomb are made of clay, mud and plaster. Bricks are used only for cornering and doming of the building. The three doors of this building are in the front porch and have the same dimensions. This repetition on three fronts has given the building a special rhythm. There are three holes on the three sides of the building above each door. Due to the distinct shape of the entrance space, this building consists of four parts: the platform, the body, the entrance porch and the domed room.
The cover of the brick dome of Jokhah tomb has collapsed. This is comparable to the domes of the Twelve Imams of Yazd (5th century AH) and the tomb of Khosroabad Tabas (5th century AH). Based on the available visual sources, there are evidences of plastering in the throat of the dome and the formalization of the arches, which are considered as design ornaments in the Jokhah building. Two fine strips under the throat of the dome in the shape of the letter (kک/) are painted continuously and chainwise in black on a white chalk background. Another decoration includes a plaster strip in the shape of a seven-eighth or a congress in relief, and these two are among the most important arrays of this building. From around the building, unglazed pottery pieces with a simple linear and comb pattern, pottery types with turquoise and gilt underglaze were obtained (12-6 AH/12-18 M).
Conclusion
The tomb is located as a single building outside the old rural context of Jokhah. The architectural features of this tomb, in terms of design and plan form, are in the group of tombs without towers, quadrangle with domes, and functionally, it is included in the category of non-religious tombs. The architectural structure of this building is very similar to the tombs of Amir Arslan Jazeb and Chalaqd in the 5th and 6th century AH. On the other hand, it has some features, especially the doming style, with the 7th AH buildings such as the Haruniyeh building and some 8th century AH buildings such as the Jame Mosque in Varamin and Jabaliyeh in Kerman. Through field investigations and analysis of the building map, it is possible to understand that the main design of the building is taken from the map of the domed square tombs of the Seljuk period, and the additional space outside the main door of the building belongs to later periods. The design of the Jokhah tomb built by Chalaqd was more impressive than the buildings of the Seljuk period in Khorasan. Also, the common features of the building such as functional elements and its materials with the Seljuk period and plaster painting decorations have shown more compatibility with the Ilkhanid period. Referring to Islamic sources and texts also does not provide accurate information about the construction time of this building. As mentioned earlier, 5th century AH, Tabas and its surrounding areas were the refuge of Ismaili claimants, and relative peace reigned in this region. In the middle of the 6th century Hijri, most of the buildings in this area and around it were destroyed by the attack of the Seljuks. Therefore, it seems that the tomb of Jokhah was formed after the aforementioned attacks. On the other hand, due to the absence of an inscription in the Jokhah building, the identity of the owner of the tomb, based on the generalization of reliable written sources of the Islamic period, goes back to a person named Malik, one of the Arab generals in the first century of Hijri. Since this building has not been scientifically explored and excavated so far, the dating of the building has been done by studying the organs, elements and comparing other tomb buildings. Therefore, the chronology of the Jokhah tomb is suggested to the end of the 6th century to the beginning of the 7th century AH.
Acknowledgment
Mr. Dr. Bahram Anani is grateful for providing information on the area of Montaziereh, Tabas.
Observation Contribution
In this article, the first author contributed 100% and the second and third authors contributed 90% and 80%.
Conflict of Interest
In writing this article, the authors are committed to scientific and research ethics and there is no conflict of interest between them.
Seyad Mehdi Mousavinia, Mohammadreza Nemati,
year 7, Issue 26 (2-2024)
year 7, Issue 26 (2-2024)
Abstract
Abstract
One of the burial methods in the Zoroastrian religion is the Xwaršēd Nigerišnand the placement of the corpse in the towers of silence. With reference to the classical sources and archeological findings, this burial tradition has been reported in the Zoroastrian religion from the beginning of the historical period until today. So far, few studies have been carried out on the tower of silence of Ray. These studies often focus on description of the site and its architectural features. It is not possible to acquire a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of this architectural structure and the construction history of the site by solely relying on these studies. This research tries to evaluate the evolution of the architecture of the tower of silence of Ray from the early to the late Islamic centuries. In addition, it seeks to obtain evidence regarding the relative construction dating of the site. As a result, this research tries to answer two questions: 1) how was the original architectural structure of the tower of silence of Ray and what architectural developments have taken place in it? 2) With reference to the literary sources and comparative studies, when was the tower of silence of Ray constructed? In order to find answers to the aforementioned questions, a descriptive-analytical method has been used. The library method, alongside with field and comparative studies were the most important information gathering means for this investigation. The results of this study indicates that the tower of silence of Ray belongs to the Early Islamic period and continued to be used up to the Late Islamic era. Furthermore, the comparative study of the architectural structure of the site, while confirming the proposed dating, places the tower of silence of Ray alongside with the tower of silence of the Yazd Mountain and the ancient Dakhma of Kerman in a particular generation of towers of silence. A generation that continued the tradition of the Pre-Islamic era towers of silence and represented the towers of silence of the early Islamic centuries.
Keywords: Tower of Silence, Ray, Early Islamic Centuries, Late Islamic Centuries, Architectural Structure.
Introduction
One of the oldest burial traditions in the ancient world is the XwaršēdNigerišn or the exposure of a corpse to open air. This burial tradition has been reported from the Epipaleolithic (McAuley, 2013: 8) and Neolithic periods (Hole & Flannery, 1963: 245-246; Lambert, 1980: 6) to the present day (Geiger, 1885: 88). There is still no accurate information regarding the entry of this burial tradition into Zoroastrianism and the quality of its spread in ancient Iran. Literary sources and archaeological data provide scattered information about this burial tradition in the Achaemenid (550-330 B.C.), Parthian (247-224 A.D.) and Sasanian (224-651 A.D.) periods. Herodotus mentions the prevalence of XwaršēdNigerišn among the Magians (Herodotus, Histories: I: 140; Godley, 1920: 179) and Strabo considers it a common tradition in the eastern regions of Iran during the Parthian period (Strabo, Geography: XXI. 3. 15; Sanatizadeh, 2003: 327).Although the XwaršēdNigerišn was mostly carried out in the mountains, without involving or creating architectural constructions, in some cases this tradition was performed in circular and enclosed spaces known as the towers of silence. The tower of silence of Chil’pyk in Khwarezm dates back to the 2nd - 4th centuries A.D. (Abdullaev, 2014: 309) and while confirming Strabo’s claim, represents the oldest instance of a Zoroastrian tower of silence in the eastern domains of the Parthian Empire. At the same time, the performance of XwaršēdNigerišn in the theater of Ai Khanom, after the departure of the Greeks, is another evidence of Dakhma burial in the Eastern Parthian lands (Frye, 1984: 190). So far, only the roofed tower of silence of Bandian has been reported from the Sasanian period (Rahbar, 2007: 455-473).This burial tradition later emerged in the Islamic period and became the most common burial method among Zoroastrian minorities.
An instance of Zoroastrian tower of silence burials can be seen at the slopes of Mount Tabarak in the city of Ray. On the one hand, this tower of silence follows the tradition of the tower of silence of Chil’pyk(Abdullaev, 2014: 309), and on the other, it is a reminiscent of the Dakhma of Yazd Mountain and the ancient Dakhma of Kerman(Huff, 2004:620-623). The lack of entrance space and the use of grave-like pāvis for the Xwaršēd Nigerišnare the architectural features of this burial structure that cannot be perceived in similar cases. The reports of the European travelers of the Qajar period (D’Allemagne, 1956: 803; Dieulafoy, 1992: 146-148; Orsolle, 2003: 303;Feuvrier, 2006: 190; Williams Jackson, 2008: 495), along with the monograph of Wolfram Kleiss (Kleiss, 1987: 369-382), and the brief description of GhadirAfround and KhosroPourbakhshandeh who surveyed the city of Ray (Afround&Pourbakhshandeh, 2002: 62), constitute the bulk of available information regarding the tower of silence in Ray. In this research, in the first place, an attempt has been made to identify the architectural structure of the tower of silence in Ray. In the next step, the architectural developments of the tower of silence will be evaluated, and finally, some hypothetical assumptions regarding the construction date of the site will be presented. In order to achieve the aforementioned goals, the study of literary sources and a comparative study of the tower of silence of Ray with similar structures is the approach of the present research.
Description of the site
The tower of silence of Ray is an isolated structure and does not have any extensions. It is situated on the northern slope of Bibi Shahrbanu Mountain, overlooking the seventh unit of Tehran Cement Factory in Ray County, at 39.217 ′51 ′ longitude and 15.388 ′36 ′ latitude and an elevation of 1203 meters above sea level. This burial structure is built with stone rubble and plaster mortar and has a diameter of 1780 cm, a height of 450 cm, and an average thickness of 100 cm (Figs. 1-2).
Evaluation
The evolution of the architectural structure and the dating of the site are the two research problems of the tower of silence in Ray.Abu Dulaf al-Khazraji’s reference and Nizam al-Mulk’s explanation are indicative of a Zoroastrian burial structure at the slopes of Tabarak Mountain in Ray. Probably, its positioning on the other side of Mount Tabarak and behind the city of Ray was due to the burial nature of the site and the performance of Xwaršēd Nigerišn in the open air. In addition, it can be assumed that the presence of Bibi Shahrbanu Shrine near Mount Tabarak was influential in the construction of the tower of silence on northern slope of the mountain. At any rate, although the word “sotōdān” had evolved from “astōdān” (i.e. bone-container), Nizam al-Mulk’s explanation is reminiscent of an architectural structure. The “sotōdān” of the Siyāsatnāmeh (i.e. Book of Politics) is mentioned in the same section where the tower of silence in Ray is located. At least until the Qajar era, this “sotōdān” was without an entrance door, and one had to use a ladder in order to get inside. The double-layers of the“sotōdān”may also indicate that the tower of silence was double-surfaced. These statements are repeated several centuries later in the reports of European travelers. The use of pāvi-like graves for the Xwaršēd Nigerišn, the absence of a central a stōdān and the deposition of bones in the corner of thetower of silence are other information that European travelers of the Qajar period have provided. Despite the emphasis on the lack of an entrance until the Qajar period, in the aerial photograph from 1335 (and onwards) and Kleiss’s visit in 1985, the tower of silence can be seen with one or two entrance doors. In addition, a podium has been built next to the site, which was probably created after its abandonment. During the surveys, no bones were found in the pit at the center of the tower of silence. This pit was made by unauthorized excavators, probably dug in the contemporary period. A comparative study of the tower of silence of Ray with other towers of silence of Iran indicates that the Ray’s example is comparable with the silent tower of the Yazd Mountain and the ancient Dakhma of Kerman from the following points of view: 1) the existence of an enclosure wall, 2) the lack of a central a stōdān, 3) the place where bones are collected in the corner of thetower of silence, and 4) the lack of extensions. At the same time, the absence of a roof, astōdān rooms, and central a stōdān shows that the main structure of the tower of silence in Ray should not have been built after the Seljuk period. The existence of the enclosure wall also implicitly testifies to the Islamic nature of the tower of silence. With reference to Abu Dulaf’smention and Nizam al-Mulk’s report, it can even be assumed that the tower of silencein Ray belongs to the Buyid period. Thanks to the works of Islamic era authors, there are available reports on the freedom of religious minorities, the tendency of the power holders to pre-Islamic cultural traditions, and the relative power of the Zoroastrian minority during the Buyid period.
Conclusion
One of the burial traditions in the ancient world was the exposure of a corpse to open air. This burial custom later entered the Zoroastrian religion and became one of the common burial methods of this religion. The practice of XwaršēdNigerišn in the towers of silence is one of the examples of this burial tradition in Zoroastrianism. An instance of this burial method has been reported at the Bibi Shahrbanu Mountain in Ray. In this research, the tower of silence in Ray was examined and studied from the perspectives of date of construction and architecture. The study of historical texts and evaluation of available evidence indicates that the tower of silence in Ray was constructed during the Early Islamic centuries and continued to be used up to the Late Islamic centuries. The recurrence of the Book of Politics’ statements regarding the architecture in the reports of Qajar era travelers, while confirming the dating of the site, provides a partial understanding of the original construct of the tower of silence in Ray. The second phase of the architectural evolution of the site goes back to the Qajar period. Despite Maneckji’s residence in Tehran during the Qajar era and his influence on the architectural structure of the towers of silence in Iran, his proposed model has never been implemented in the tower of silence in Ray. The application of grave-like pāvis is one of the few changes made in the architectural structure of this tower of silence in the Qajar period. The creation of the podium and the entrance, probably during the Pahlavi period, is the last phase of architectural changes in the tower of silence in Ray. Regarding the architectural model of the tower of silence in Ray, it can be stated that it is the continuation of the tower of silence of the Yazd Mountain and the ancient Dakhma of Kerman. These burial structures, all of which probably belong to the first centuries of Islam, are limited by an enclosure wall and the XwaršēdNigerišnwas performed inside its natural space. The absence of a central astōdān and the place where bones are collected in the corner of the tower of silence are the other common features of these burial tradition in the first centuries of Islam in Iran. Although the architectural structure of the towers silence changed as a result of socio-religious developments of Zoroastrianism in later periods, the Ray’s example continued to exist without being influenced by newer generations. As a result, based on the architectural and literary sources studies, the tower of silence in Ray shows the continuation of the tradition of the tower of silence of the Yazd Mountain and the ancient Dakhma of Kerman and hence related to the early Islamic centuries in Iran. The literary sources of the early Islamic centuries, while confirming this dating, provides relative statements about the architectural structure of the tower of silence. The Buyid period, one of the golden ages in the history of Ray, as Nizam al-Mulk has pointed out, can be considered as a hypothetical assumption for the construction of this Zoroastrian burial structure. A period in which, thanks to the literary sources of the Islamic period, there is information, albeit scant, regarding the position of this religious minority in its sociopolitical affairs.
One of the burial methods in the Zoroastrian religion is the Xwaršēd Nigerišnand the placement of the corpse in the towers of silence. With reference to the classical sources and archeological findings, this burial tradition has been reported in the Zoroastrian religion from the beginning of the historical period until today. So far, few studies have been carried out on the tower of silence of Ray. These studies often focus on description of the site and its architectural features. It is not possible to acquire a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of this architectural structure and the construction history of the site by solely relying on these studies. This research tries to evaluate the evolution of the architecture of the tower of silence of Ray from the early to the late Islamic centuries. In addition, it seeks to obtain evidence regarding the relative construction dating of the site. As a result, this research tries to answer two questions: 1) how was the original architectural structure of the tower of silence of Ray and what architectural developments have taken place in it? 2) With reference to the literary sources and comparative studies, when was the tower of silence of Ray constructed? In order to find answers to the aforementioned questions, a descriptive-analytical method has been used. The library method, alongside with field and comparative studies were the most important information gathering means for this investigation. The results of this study indicates that the tower of silence of Ray belongs to the Early Islamic period and continued to be used up to the Late Islamic era. Furthermore, the comparative study of the architectural structure of the site, while confirming the proposed dating, places the tower of silence of Ray alongside with the tower of silence of the Yazd Mountain and the ancient Dakhma of Kerman in a particular generation of towers of silence. A generation that continued the tradition of the Pre-Islamic era towers of silence and represented the towers of silence of the early Islamic centuries.
Keywords: Tower of Silence, Ray, Early Islamic Centuries, Late Islamic Centuries, Architectural Structure.
Introduction
One of the oldest burial traditions in the ancient world is the XwaršēdNigerišn or the exposure of a corpse to open air. This burial tradition has been reported from the Epipaleolithic (McAuley, 2013: 8) and Neolithic periods (Hole & Flannery, 1963: 245-246; Lambert, 1980: 6) to the present day (Geiger, 1885: 88). There is still no accurate information regarding the entry of this burial tradition into Zoroastrianism and the quality of its spread in ancient Iran. Literary sources and archaeological data provide scattered information about this burial tradition in the Achaemenid (550-330 B.C.), Parthian (247-224 A.D.) and Sasanian (224-651 A.D.) periods. Herodotus mentions the prevalence of XwaršēdNigerišn among the Magians (Herodotus, Histories: I: 140; Godley, 1920: 179) and Strabo considers it a common tradition in the eastern regions of Iran during the Parthian period (Strabo, Geography: XXI. 3. 15; Sanatizadeh, 2003: 327).Although the XwaršēdNigerišn was mostly carried out in the mountains, without involving or creating architectural constructions, in some cases this tradition was performed in circular and enclosed spaces known as the towers of silence. The tower of silence of Chil’pyk in Khwarezm dates back to the 2nd - 4th centuries A.D. (Abdullaev, 2014: 309) and while confirming Strabo’s claim, represents the oldest instance of a Zoroastrian tower of silence in the eastern domains of the Parthian Empire. At the same time, the performance of XwaršēdNigerišn in the theater of Ai Khanom, after the departure of the Greeks, is another evidence of Dakhma burial in the Eastern Parthian lands (Frye, 1984: 190). So far, only the roofed tower of silence of Bandian has been reported from the Sasanian period (Rahbar, 2007: 455-473).This burial tradition later emerged in the Islamic period and became the most common burial method among Zoroastrian minorities.
An instance of Zoroastrian tower of silence burials can be seen at the slopes of Mount Tabarak in the city of Ray. On the one hand, this tower of silence follows the tradition of the tower of silence of Chil’pyk(Abdullaev, 2014: 309), and on the other, it is a reminiscent of the Dakhma of Yazd Mountain and the ancient Dakhma of Kerman(Huff, 2004:620-623). The lack of entrance space and the use of grave-like pāvis for the Xwaršēd Nigerišnare the architectural features of this burial structure that cannot be perceived in similar cases. The reports of the European travelers of the Qajar period (D’Allemagne, 1956: 803; Dieulafoy, 1992: 146-148; Orsolle, 2003: 303;Feuvrier, 2006: 190; Williams Jackson, 2008: 495), along with the monograph of Wolfram Kleiss (Kleiss, 1987: 369-382), and the brief description of GhadirAfround and KhosroPourbakhshandeh who surveyed the city of Ray (Afround&Pourbakhshandeh, 2002: 62), constitute the bulk of available information regarding the tower of silence in Ray. In this research, in the first place, an attempt has been made to identify the architectural structure of the tower of silence in Ray. In the next step, the architectural developments of the tower of silence will be evaluated, and finally, some hypothetical assumptions regarding the construction date of the site will be presented. In order to achieve the aforementioned goals, the study of literary sources and a comparative study of the tower of silence of Ray with similar structures is the approach of the present research.
Description of the site
The tower of silence of Ray is an isolated structure and does not have any extensions. It is situated on the northern slope of Bibi Shahrbanu Mountain, overlooking the seventh unit of Tehran Cement Factory in Ray County, at 39.217 ′51 ′ longitude and 15.388 ′36 ′ latitude and an elevation of 1203 meters above sea level. This burial structure is built with stone rubble and plaster mortar and has a diameter of 1780 cm, a height of 450 cm, and an average thickness of 100 cm (Figs. 1-2).
Evaluation
The evolution of the architectural structure and the dating of the site are the two research problems of the tower of silence in Ray.Abu Dulaf al-Khazraji’s reference and Nizam al-Mulk’s explanation are indicative of a Zoroastrian burial structure at the slopes of Tabarak Mountain in Ray. Probably, its positioning on the other side of Mount Tabarak and behind the city of Ray was due to the burial nature of the site and the performance of Xwaršēd Nigerišn in the open air. In addition, it can be assumed that the presence of Bibi Shahrbanu Shrine near Mount Tabarak was influential in the construction of the tower of silence on northern slope of the mountain. At any rate, although the word “sotōdān” had evolved from “astōdān” (i.e. bone-container), Nizam al-Mulk’s explanation is reminiscent of an architectural structure. The “sotōdān” of the Siyāsatnāmeh (i.e. Book of Politics) is mentioned in the same section where the tower of silence in Ray is located. At least until the Qajar era, this “sotōdān” was without an entrance door, and one had to use a ladder in order to get inside. The double-layers of the“sotōdān”may also indicate that the tower of silence was double-surfaced. These statements are repeated several centuries later in the reports of European travelers. The use of pāvi-like graves for the Xwaršēd Nigerišn, the absence of a central a stōdān and the deposition of bones in the corner of thetower of silence are other information that European travelers of the Qajar period have provided. Despite the emphasis on the lack of an entrance until the Qajar period, in the aerial photograph from 1335 (and onwards) and Kleiss’s visit in 1985, the tower of silence can be seen with one or two entrance doors. In addition, a podium has been built next to the site, which was probably created after its abandonment. During the surveys, no bones were found in the pit at the center of the tower of silence. This pit was made by unauthorized excavators, probably dug in the contemporary period. A comparative study of the tower of silence of Ray with other towers of silence of Iran indicates that the Ray’s example is comparable with the silent tower of the Yazd Mountain and the ancient Dakhma of Kerman from the following points of view: 1) the existence of an enclosure wall, 2) the lack of a central a stōdān, 3) the place where bones are collected in the corner of thetower of silence, and 4) the lack of extensions. At the same time, the absence of a roof, astōdān rooms, and central a stōdān shows that the main structure of the tower of silence in Ray should not have been built after the Seljuk period. The existence of the enclosure wall also implicitly testifies to the Islamic nature of the tower of silence. With reference to Abu Dulaf’smention and Nizam al-Mulk’s report, it can even be assumed that the tower of silencein Ray belongs to the Buyid period. Thanks to the works of Islamic era authors, there are available reports on the freedom of religious minorities, the tendency of the power holders to pre-Islamic cultural traditions, and the relative power of the Zoroastrian minority during the Buyid period.
Conclusion
One of the burial traditions in the ancient world was the exposure of a corpse to open air. This burial custom later entered the Zoroastrian religion and became one of the common burial methods of this religion. The practice of XwaršēdNigerišn in the towers of silence is one of the examples of this burial tradition in Zoroastrianism. An instance of this burial method has been reported at the Bibi Shahrbanu Mountain in Ray. In this research, the tower of silence in Ray was examined and studied from the perspectives of date of construction and architecture. The study of historical texts and evaluation of available evidence indicates that the tower of silence in Ray was constructed during the Early Islamic centuries and continued to be used up to the Late Islamic centuries. The recurrence of the Book of Politics’ statements regarding the architecture in the reports of Qajar era travelers, while confirming the dating of the site, provides a partial understanding of the original construct of the tower of silence in Ray. The second phase of the architectural evolution of the site goes back to the Qajar period. Despite Maneckji’s residence in Tehran during the Qajar era and his influence on the architectural structure of the towers of silence in Iran, his proposed model has never been implemented in the tower of silence in Ray. The application of grave-like pāvis is one of the few changes made in the architectural structure of this tower of silence in the Qajar period. The creation of the podium and the entrance, probably during the Pahlavi period, is the last phase of architectural changes in the tower of silence in Ray. Regarding the architectural model of the tower of silence in Ray, it can be stated that it is the continuation of the tower of silence of the Yazd Mountain and the ancient Dakhma of Kerman. These burial structures, all of which probably belong to the first centuries of Islam, are limited by an enclosure wall and the XwaršēdNigerišnwas performed inside its natural space. The absence of a central astōdān and the place where bones are collected in the corner of the tower of silence are the other common features of these burial tradition in the first centuries of Islam in Iran. Although the architectural structure of the towers silence changed as a result of socio-religious developments of Zoroastrianism in later periods, the Ray’s example continued to exist without being influenced by newer generations. As a result, based on the architectural and literary sources studies, the tower of silence in Ray shows the continuation of the tradition of the tower of silence of the Yazd Mountain and the ancient Dakhma of Kerman and hence related to the early Islamic centuries in Iran. The literary sources of the early Islamic centuries, while confirming this dating, provides relative statements about the architectural structure of the tower of silence. The Buyid period, one of the golden ages in the history of Ray, as Nizam al-Mulk has pointed out, can be considered as a hypothetical assumption for the construction of this Zoroastrian burial structure. A period in which, thanks to the literary sources of the Islamic period, there is information, albeit scant, regarding the position of this religious minority in its sociopolitical affairs.
Hossein Sedighian, Mohammad Farjami,
year 8, Issue 28 (8-2024)
year 8, Issue 28 (8-2024)
Abstract
Abstract
Belqeis site or Old Esfarayen is considered one of the important urban centers in the Islamic era and in the North Khorasan province. Based on historical sources and archaeological excavations, this city has been inhabited since the early Islamic centuries until the Safavid period. So far, many books and articles have been published about this city and some of its archaeological evidence; But parts of its findings have not been published yet. Pottery from the 11th to the 14th century is among the archeological findings of this site, which have not been introduced and investigated in any independent research. These works include various decorative groups, some of which are less known. These factors show the necessity of conducting independent research in this field. The current research was based on two essential and main questions, which are as follows: How many groups were the pottery from the 11th to 14th centuries, what decorative features do they have, and which regions are they comparable to? What are the production centers of this pottery? According to these questions, the main goal of the current research is to investigate, analyze, and compare the pottery of the 11th to 14th centuries in the vicinity of the Belqeis site and to identify their possible production center or centers. The descriptive-analytical method was used to conduct the present research and the method of collecting information is based on field and library studies. As a result of the present research, various types of unglazed and glazed pottery from the 11th to 14th centuries of the area were investigated, described, and compared. In the meantime, some decorative techniques such as drop-drop glazing were also presented in the research for the first time. Much of the studied pottery was probably produced on the site itself, whose production evidence was also shown in the article. Still, some pottery, such as lusterware and celadon, was probably exported to this city from other centers such as Jurjan, Jiroft, Kashan and China.
Keywords: Pottery, Esfarayen, Belqeis Site, 11th to 14th Century, Islamic Era.
Introduction
Esfarayen is one of the ancient cities of North Khorasan province, which has been subject to calamities, looting, and attacks many times throughout history. Historians have called Esfarayen the border of Nishapur or Jurjan. Most of the transformations of this city are related to the 9 to 11 centuries; However, in the period of 12th and 13th centuries, it faced decline and was attacked twice by the Ghoz and then by the Mongols. In the 14 century and with the establishment of Sarbedars rule in the region, the city became relatively prosperous for a while, and this process continued until the Safavid period. According to these cases, it is clear that the life of the ancient city of Esfarayen continued continuously from the beginning of Islam to the Safavid period; This is despite the fact that our awareness regarding the archaeological findings of this city, especially its pottery, includes most of the early Islamic centuries. On the other hand, our knowledge about the pottery of the Islamic era of Greater Khorasan also includes the periods before the Mongol attack and after the Timurids came to power; While our knowledge about the pottery of the 13-14 centuries in the region is relatively small. Considering that the social life of the city of Esfarayen spanned the entire 11th to 14th centuries, it was necessary to investigate the pottery of this period in independent research. A subject that has not been independently addressed in any research so far. According to these cases, the current research is based on two essential and main questions, which are as follows: How many groups were the pottery from the 11th to 14th centuries, what decorative features do they have and which regions are they comparable to? What are the production centers of this pottery? According to these questions, the main goal of the current research is to investigate, analyze, and compare the pottery of the 11th to 14th centuries at the Belqeis site and identify their possible production center or centers.
Descriptive-analytical method was used to conduct the present research and the method of collecting information is based on field and library studies. Based on this, the pottery studied in this article is related to the archaeological excavations of the third and fourth seasons of the Belqeis site. After the initial documentation and description of these pottery, they have been classified and their comparative study with other sites has been done.
Discussion
In the present study, only the pottery was examined and studied, which included the 11th to 14th centuries according to the comparative dates. These potteries were divided into two groups, unglazed and glazed, and each group was examined separately. The unglazed pottery of the area has a clay paste in the color range of pea, red, green, and black, and various motifs are used on some pieces. Some unglazed pottery from the area, such as red paste samples, probably from Jurjan or Jiroft, were exported to this area. But other decorative pottery, such as molded and stamped samples, were produced in the area itself.
The glazed pottery of the area also has various clay pastes, frit-ware, and porcelain. The single-colored glazed examples of the area generally have a frit paste, and most of them are turquoise-green in color. Most of these production pieces were probably from the Belqis site. Among the single-colored glazed pottery of the area, scattered pieces of Celadon pottery were also identified, which imported from China in the 14th century. Pottery with the underglaze painting technique has a lot of variety and is generally frit-ware. Some of this pottery, such as the blue and white samples, was probably the production of the area itself, but the pottery, such as the Silhouette and Sultanabad samples, was exported to this area from other centers such as Jurjan, Nishapur, and Kashan. have been Lusterware pottery, which all belong to the 13th century, are exported from other regions such as Jurjan or Kashan.
It should be noted that in the excavations of the site, in addition to the pottery kiln, many slags were also found inside the kiln and its surrounding areas. Among the evidence of pottery production in the area, we can mention the following: scattered pieces of clay molds, three, four, or multi-faceted clay stamps, and many pieces of clay balls that sometimes have glazes on them. It can be seen, many pieces of pottery tripods, clay chines, unglazed or glazed pottery, deformed or stuck together, crudely carved pottery, and objects Cone-shaped pottery that was obtained along with other findings related to pottery production.
According to the existence of this solid evidence as well as petrographic studies conducted on some terracotta pieces, it can be assumed that many of the studied terracotta pieces were produced in the area itself; But some pieces, such as examples of lusterware, Celadon, Sultanabad, and some painted red paste pottery, were imported from other centers such as Jurjan, Nishapur, Jiroft, Kashan, and China.
Conclusion
The present research was carried out with the aim of examining, comparing, and dating the pottery of the 11th to 14th centuries of the Belqeis site and also identifying the possible centers or centers of their production. As a result of the present research, various types of unglazed pottery of this period were investigated, analyzed, and compared. As an example, pottery with drop glaze decoration was introduced and it was checked that this decorative method was used in combination with other motifs on the unglazed pottery of the area. Due to the fact that in addition to unglazed pottery, evidence of pottery production was also obtained in the excavations of the area, it can be said that most of the unglazed samples were probably produced in the area itself; But pottery such as unglazed embossed red paste with stumpy decoration and sphero-conical vessel pieces were probably exported to this area from the two centers of Jurjan and Jiroft. Because the production evidence of this pottery was obtained in these two centers and the form and patterns of the pottery in the area are somewhat similar to the production samples of these two centers.
Many of the glazed pottery of the middle Islamic ages of the area, despite the great variety, were probably produced in the area itself; As an example, we can refer to the single-color turquoise glazed pottery of ferritic paste, the examples of single-color oil-lamps of frit-ware, and the blue and white pottery with a striped pattern. Apart from these cases, in the excavations of the area, scattered fragments of other pottery groups of this time period were found, which were probably imported from other centers due to less dispersion and lack of identification of proof of their production in the area. are as an example, we can mention the obtained luster-ware, Sultan-Abad, Celadon, and Silhouette pottery, which may have been imported from centers such as Kashan, Jurjan, and Nishapur.
Belqeis site or Old Esfarayen is considered one of the important urban centers in the Islamic era and in the North Khorasan province. Based on historical sources and archaeological excavations, this city has been inhabited since the early Islamic centuries until the Safavid period. So far, many books and articles have been published about this city and some of its archaeological evidence; But parts of its findings have not been published yet. Pottery from the 11th to the 14th century is among the archeological findings of this site, which have not been introduced and investigated in any independent research. These works include various decorative groups, some of which are less known. These factors show the necessity of conducting independent research in this field. The current research was based on two essential and main questions, which are as follows: How many groups were the pottery from the 11th to 14th centuries, what decorative features do they have, and which regions are they comparable to? What are the production centers of this pottery? According to these questions, the main goal of the current research is to investigate, analyze, and compare the pottery of the 11th to 14th centuries in the vicinity of the Belqeis site and to identify their possible production center or centers. The descriptive-analytical method was used to conduct the present research and the method of collecting information is based on field and library studies. As a result of the present research, various types of unglazed and glazed pottery from the 11th to 14th centuries of the area were investigated, described, and compared. In the meantime, some decorative techniques such as drop-drop glazing were also presented in the research for the first time. Much of the studied pottery was probably produced on the site itself, whose production evidence was also shown in the article. Still, some pottery, such as lusterware and celadon, was probably exported to this city from other centers such as Jurjan, Jiroft, Kashan and China.
Keywords: Pottery, Esfarayen, Belqeis Site, 11th to 14th Century, Islamic Era.
Introduction
Esfarayen is one of the ancient cities of North Khorasan province, which has been subject to calamities, looting, and attacks many times throughout history. Historians have called Esfarayen the border of Nishapur or Jurjan. Most of the transformations of this city are related to the 9 to 11 centuries; However, in the period of 12th and 13th centuries, it faced decline and was attacked twice by the Ghoz and then by the Mongols. In the 14 century and with the establishment of Sarbedars rule in the region, the city became relatively prosperous for a while, and this process continued until the Safavid period. According to these cases, it is clear that the life of the ancient city of Esfarayen continued continuously from the beginning of Islam to the Safavid period; This is despite the fact that our awareness regarding the archaeological findings of this city, especially its pottery, includes most of the early Islamic centuries. On the other hand, our knowledge about the pottery of the Islamic era of Greater Khorasan also includes the periods before the Mongol attack and after the Timurids came to power; While our knowledge about the pottery of the 13-14 centuries in the region is relatively small. Considering that the social life of the city of Esfarayen spanned the entire 11th to 14th centuries, it was necessary to investigate the pottery of this period in independent research. A subject that has not been independently addressed in any research so far. According to these cases, the current research is based on two essential and main questions, which are as follows: How many groups were the pottery from the 11th to 14th centuries, what decorative features do they have and which regions are they comparable to? What are the production centers of this pottery? According to these questions, the main goal of the current research is to investigate, analyze, and compare the pottery of the 11th to 14th centuries at the Belqeis site and identify their possible production center or centers.
Descriptive-analytical method was used to conduct the present research and the method of collecting information is based on field and library studies. Based on this, the pottery studied in this article is related to the archaeological excavations of the third and fourth seasons of the Belqeis site. After the initial documentation and description of these pottery, they have been classified and their comparative study with other sites has been done.
Discussion
In the present study, only the pottery was examined and studied, which included the 11th to 14th centuries according to the comparative dates. These potteries were divided into two groups, unglazed and glazed, and each group was examined separately. The unglazed pottery of the area has a clay paste in the color range of pea, red, green, and black, and various motifs are used on some pieces. Some unglazed pottery from the area, such as red paste samples, probably from Jurjan or Jiroft, were exported to this area. But other decorative pottery, such as molded and stamped samples, were produced in the area itself.
The glazed pottery of the area also has various clay pastes, frit-ware, and porcelain. The single-colored glazed examples of the area generally have a frit paste, and most of them are turquoise-green in color. Most of these production pieces were probably from the Belqis site. Among the single-colored glazed pottery of the area, scattered pieces of Celadon pottery were also identified, which imported from China in the 14th century. Pottery with the underglaze painting technique has a lot of variety and is generally frit-ware. Some of this pottery, such as the blue and white samples, was probably the production of the area itself, but the pottery, such as the Silhouette and Sultanabad samples, was exported to this area from other centers such as Jurjan, Nishapur, and Kashan. have been Lusterware pottery, which all belong to the 13th century, are exported from other regions such as Jurjan or Kashan.
It should be noted that in the excavations of the site, in addition to the pottery kiln, many slags were also found inside the kiln and its surrounding areas. Among the evidence of pottery production in the area, we can mention the following: scattered pieces of clay molds, three, four, or multi-faceted clay stamps, and many pieces of clay balls that sometimes have glazes on them. It can be seen, many pieces of pottery tripods, clay chines, unglazed or glazed pottery, deformed or stuck together, crudely carved pottery, and objects Cone-shaped pottery that was obtained along with other findings related to pottery production.
According to the existence of this solid evidence as well as petrographic studies conducted on some terracotta pieces, it can be assumed that many of the studied terracotta pieces were produced in the area itself; But some pieces, such as examples of lusterware, Celadon, Sultanabad, and some painted red paste pottery, were imported from other centers such as Jurjan, Nishapur, Jiroft, Kashan, and China.
Conclusion
The present research was carried out with the aim of examining, comparing, and dating the pottery of the 11th to 14th centuries of the Belqeis site and also identifying the possible centers or centers of their production. As a result of the present research, various types of unglazed pottery of this period were investigated, analyzed, and compared. As an example, pottery with drop glaze decoration was introduced and it was checked that this decorative method was used in combination with other motifs on the unglazed pottery of the area. Due to the fact that in addition to unglazed pottery, evidence of pottery production was also obtained in the excavations of the area, it can be said that most of the unglazed samples were probably produced in the area itself; But pottery such as unglazed embossed red paste with stumpy decoration and sphero-conical vessel pieces were probably exported to this area from the two centers of Jurjan and Jiroft. Because the production evidence of this pottery was obtained in these two centers and the form and patterns of the pottery in the area are somewhat similar to the production samples of these two centers.
Many of the glazed pottery of the middle Islamic ages of the area, despite the great variety, were probably produced in the area itself; As an example, we can refer to the single-color turquoise glazed pottery of ferritic paste, the examples of single-color oil-lamps of frit-ware, and the blue and white pottery with a striped pattern. Apart from these cases, in the excavations of the area, scattered fragments of other pottery groups of this time period were found, which were probably imported from other centers due to less dispersion and lack of identification of proof of their production in the area. are as an example, we can mention the obtained luster-ware, Sultan-Abad, Celadon, and Silhouette pottery, which may have been imported from centers such as Kashan, Jurjan, and Nishapur.
Fariborz Tahmasebi, Reza Rezaloo, Esmaiel Maroufi Aghdam, Leila Sarhadi,
year 8, Issue 29 (12-2024)
year 8, Issue 29 (12-2024)
Abstract
Abstract
Archaeological excavations in Yelsuie Germi Castle, very rich findings and valuable documents such as pottery, architecture and other handicrafts were identified and excavated from under a mound of soil that can play an important role in the detailed analysis of this area. One of these landmarks is an unknown structure with complex architecture and building elements located on the hills of the castle near the Sambur Chay River. This building has sections and spaces of four corners that the presence of water conduction paths into the building on the walls and water outlet channels in the floor, has increased the importance of the building and has made it more difficult to identify and evaluate the main function of the building. In this regard, the present research is descriptive-analytical and based on field studies and review of library documents, while identifying and introducing the mentioned building, seeks to find a logical answer to the following questions: What is the usage of the unknown building of Yelsuie Castle and how did it work? What era does the unknown building of Yelsuie Castle belong to? Studies were carried out show that the unknown building is due to the presence of ponds and inlets and outlets water conduction paths was in association with water usage, which is probably used for the preparation and processing of clay, and accordingly by the authors, The name of the building is called “clay processing building”. On the other hand, the study of pottery obtained from different spaces of this building and its comparison with other areas, confirms that this building belongs to the Islamic Middle Ages and the Seljuk period.
Keywords: Germi, Yelsuie Castle, Clay Processing Building, Pottery, Medieval Islam.
Introduction
The current research method is based on a descriptive-analytical and historical approach and its data collection is in the form of library and field studies and archaeological excavations in the area. According to this, at first, the whole building and its various spaces have been drawn, designed and three-dimensional with the help of various software; Also, in order to achieve the most accurate information and general analysis of the building, the obtained pottery from inside the brick building has been compared and matched with the pottery works of other areas of the Islamic era. The ancient place of Yelsuie Castle in the Ingot section of Germi city consists of a small castle on top of a high natural hill and a residential area located in its southwestern part. Yelsuie Castle is located in the watercourse of Sambur Chay River. Easy access to river water resources as well as the precipice situation in the southern and eastern part of the hill on which the castle was built, is one of the most important strategic features that has been influential in choosing this place to form such an area. In general, this area can be considered as one of the most key Islamic area in northwestern Iran. The brick building is located on the eastern side of the castle and on the watercourse of the Sambur Chay River. In this regard, in order to identify this brick building, a workshop called Workshop No. 4 was created in this part of the area by the excavation team. While continuing the excavation process, a brick building with special architecture and unknown usage was discovered. The mentioned building has an almost rectangular plan that includes several spaces inside. The main materials used in the structure of this building are bricks with gypsum and lime mortar, and in some parts, especially in the outer parts of the building, river rubble has been used. The walls of the brick building are completely smooth and flat and are made with an average width of 50 cm and the height of all of them is the same and is about 70 cm.
Discussion
In general, according to the general structure of the brick building, the most reasonable usage for this architecture is being a pottery workshop and processing and preparing clay in it. One of the most important steps before making pottery is to find the right clay or grinding clay, without clods and other materials. Therefore, for this purpose, it is necessary for the pottery clay to be well shaped, sifted, cleaned and prepared. It seems that small ponds that are embedded lengthwise in different parts of the brick building; Along with water inlet and outlet channels, they are made for just such a use. In fact, in this building, water is directed into these ponds and collected in them through small canals that are embedded on the walls. After filling them, in the next stage, the clay, which was suitable for pottery, was mixed with water inside these basins and became a slurry. While mixing the clay with water, the water flow is redirected into these ponds again, and during this operation, the excess material inside of the soil as well as other additional materials are poured out of the ponds along with the excess water into large side spaces. And was led out of the building by floor channels. Also, the grains of sand that may have been inside the clay, due to the weight of the bottom of the ponds and the parts that are embedded in the bottom of the floor, were deposited. After doing this, the water flow was cut off and the produced clay was deposited in the ponds for a few days and remained there until it was soft and smooth and so-called settled. After a few days, the prepared clay was collected and transferred to pottery workshops and then to pottery kilns.
Conclusion
In fact, it should be added that the existence of various pottery in various forms, styles and techniques in Yelsuie Castle indicates the possible presence of pottery kilns in this site, which also confirms the fact that the brick building is a workshop for producing high quality clay. On the surface of Yelsuie Castle, there are limited traces of pottery balls that indicate the presence of pottery kilns in the area, so that with the help of these balls, the temperature of the kilns was regulated. In this article, 3 maps and 13 images including the castle itself, its geographical location, as well as the brick building and its various parts are given. Also, in two tables, the types of obtained pottery from the brick building are displayed, and in another table, similar samples of obtained pottery from other sites of the Islamic period in other parts of Iran have been compared and matched. According to potteries and other artifacts, the date and time of construction of this building should be belong to the Middle Ages of Islam and the Seljuk era.
Archaeological excavations in Yelsuie Germi Castle, very rich findings and valuable documents such as pottery, architecture and other handicrafts were identified and excavated from under a mound of soil that can play an important role in the detailed analysis of this area. One of these landmarks is an unknown structure with complex architecture and building elements located on the hills of the castle near the Sambur Chay River. This building has sections and spaces of four corners that the presence of water conduction paths into the building on the walls and water outlet channels in the floor, has increased the importance of the building and has made it more difficult to identify and evaluate the main function of the building. In this regard, the present research is descriptive-analytical and based on field studies and review of library documents, while identifying and introducing the mentioned building, seeks to find a logical answer to the following questions: What is the usage of the unknown building of Yelsuie Castle and how did it work? What era does the unknown building of Yelsuie Castle belong to? Studies were carried out show that the unknown building is due to the presence of ponds and inlets and outlets water conduction paths was in association with water usage, which is probably used for the preparation and processing of clay, and accordingly by the authors, The name of the building is called “clay processing building”. On the other hand, the study of pottery obtained from different spaces of this building and its comparison with other areas, confirms that this building belongs to the Islamic Middle Ages and the Seljuk period.
Keywords: Germi, Yelsuie Castle, Clay Processing Building, Pottery, Medieval Islam.
Introduction
The current research method is based on a descriptive-analytical and historical approach and its data collection is in the form of library and field studies and archaeological excavations in the area. According to this, at first, the whole building and its various spaces have been drawn, designed and three-dimensional with the help of various software; Also, in order to achieve the most accurate information and general analysis of the building, the obtained pottery from inside the brick building has been compared and matched with the pottery works of other areas of the Islamic era. The ancient place of Yelsuie Castle in the Ingot section of Germi city consists of a small castle on top of a high natural hill and a residential area located in its southwestern part. Yelsuie Castle is located in the watercourse of Sambur Chay River. Easy access to river water resources as well as the precipice situation in the southern and eastern part of the hill on which the castle was built, is one of the most important strategic features that has been influential in choosing this place to form such an area. In general, this area can be considered as one of the most key Islamic area in northwestern Iran. The brick building is located on the eastern side of the castle and on the watercourse of the Sambur Chay River. In this regard, in order to identify this brick building, a workshop called Workshop No. 4 was created in this part of the area by the excavation team. While continuing the excavation process, a brick building with special architecture and unknown usage was discovered. The mentioned building has an almost rectangular plan that includes several spaces inside. The main materials used in the structure of this building are bricks with gypsum and lime mortar, and in some parts, especially in the outer parts of the building, river rubble has been used. The walls of the brick building are completely smooth and flat and are made with an average width of 50 cm and the height of all of them is the same and is about 70 cm.
Discussion
In general, according to the general structure of the brick building, the most reasonable usage for this architecture is being a pottery workshop and processing and preparing clay in it. One of the most important steps before making pottery is to find the right clay or grinding clay, without clods and other materials. Therefore, for this purpose, it is necessary for the pottery clay to be well shaped, sifted, cleaned and prepared. It seems that small ponds that are embedded lengthwise in different parts of the brick building; Along with water inlet and outlet channels, they are made for just such a use. In fact, in this building, water is directed into these ponds and collected in them through small canals that are embedded on the walls. After filling them, in the next stage, the clay, which was suitable for pottery, was mixed with water inside these basins and became a slurry. While mixing the clay with water, the water flow is redirected into these ponds again, and during this operation, the excess material inside of the soil as well as other additional materials are poured out of the ponds along with the excess water into large side spaces. And was led out of the building by floor channels. Also, the grains of sand that may have been inside the clay, due to the weight of the bottom of the ponds and the parts that are embedded in the bottom of the floor, were deposited. After doing this, the water flow was cut off and the produced clay was deposited in the ponds for a few days and remained there until it was soft and smooth and so-called settled. After a few days, the prepared clay was collected and transferred to pottery workshops and then to pottery kilns.
Conclusion
In fact, it should be added that the existence of various pottery in various forms, styles and techniques in Yelsuie Castle indicates the possible presence of pottery kilns in this site, which also confirms the fact that the brick building is a workshop for producing high quality clay. On the surface of Yelsuie Castle, there are limited traces of pottery balls that indicate the presence of pottery kilns in the area, so that with the help of these balls, the temperature of the kilns was regulated. In this article, 3 maps and 13 images including the castle itself, its geographical location, as well as the brick building and its various parts are given. Also, in two tables, the types of obtained pottery from the brick building are displayed, and in another table, similar samples of obtained pottery from other sites of the Islamic period in other parts of Iran have been compared and matched. According to potteries and other artifacts, the date and time of construction of this building should be belong to the Middle Ages of Islam and the Seljuk era.
Mohammad Mirshafiee,
year 8, Issue 29 (12-2024)
year 8, Issue 29 (12-2024)
Abstract
Abstract
Lustre is an enamel painting on glass or glaze, which is baked in a furnace with a regenerating environment, and after the baking process is completed, it forms a shiny layer with a metallic polish. This metallic luster can be in different color ranges such as gold or copper red, which is created by copper and silver nanoparticles. The first works that have been obtained from the implementation of the Lustre technique are on glass containers. However, according to the theory of most researchers, this technique was used on glazed pottery from the 3rd century AH and continued. On the other hand, in the historical sources, the instructions of Lustre on Abgineh are discussed in the manuscript of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna. In the present research, it has been tried to answer the question, what are the points of commonality between the glass works of Lustre and the instructions of Risalah Al-Durra Al- Meknuna? The current research is of fundamental type and the scientific information and historical documents of the research were collected in the form of documents and then analyzed and explained using the descriptive-analytical research method. The results show that the elements used in the gilding of the glasses of the early Islamic periods are in accordance with the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna. Also, there is a match between Lustre’s glass works and the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknunain the way and implementation of coloring and also in the color variation.
Keywords: Glass of the Islamic Era, Lustre Enamel, Al-Durra Al- Meknuna, Lustre Glass.
Introduction
The method of collecting information will be based on library sources. The research method is based on the way of collecting information in the form of descriptive and analytical research and the type of basic research. In this research, it has been tried to collect Zarinfam glass works from books and also from the reliable sites of different museums.
An overview of the history of Lustre glass and the theory of transfer of Lustre technology from glass to pottery:
The theory of the transfer of Lustre from glass to pottery argues that the oldest documented date for the method of Lustre is related to glass and belongs to the 2nd century of Hijri and was produced in Egypt. This theory emphasizes that this technology was gradually transferred from Egypt to Basra, Iraq over time, and then transferred to pottery by Iraqi potters in the 3rd century AH. (Carl Johan Lamm, 1941; Akbari, 1393: 4 & Porter, 1381: 15; Carboni, 2001:51).
Finally, it should be mentioned that the basic questions regarding the works obtained from Syria, Iraq and even Iran remain unanswered and it is still possible to attribute the origin of Lustre glass to each of the mentioned countries. In an article entitled: Analysis of the theory of the transfer of gilded glass technology from glass to pottery, based on the treatise Al-Durra Al- Meknuna, Mirshfi’i has tried to emphasize that the oldest written work related to Lustre glass is the handwritten treatise Al-Durra Al- Meknuna written by Jaber bin Hayyan. And this treatise is even older than the Egyptian glass work (163 AH) which has been cited by researchers, and it shows the familiarity and production of Lustre by glassmakers in Iraq in the first half of the second century. In fact, it can be said that since the 3rd century A.H., Lustre flourishes on pottery and probably the production of Lustre glasses has decreased from this period onwards and then stopped. Of course, considering that in the book Javahernameh Nizami in the 6th century of Hijri, there are instructions that mention the production of Lustre both on pottery and on glass, it can be said that the production of Lustre on glass was still common until this time. is (at least in Iran). This is despite the fact that in the written works of the following centuries, such as Arais al-Jawahir and Nafais al-Ataib in 700 AH and even the treatise of Cipriano Piccolpaso in 966 AH, only the golden instructions on pottery were discussed.
Discussion
Glass works with Lustre painting:
The collection and study of the works of the first centuries of golden glass have been taken from the written sources of the researchers as well as the works available in the prestigious sites of different museums of the world. This sample of works will help us in accordance with the instructions of Risalah al-Darrah al-Makununa. Finally, these works are compiled in table number (1) based on the estimated construction date.
Instructions related to Lustre glass in Al-Durra Al- Meknuna manuscript:
The instructions related to Lustre, in the treatise of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna, start from page 9 of the book and with the words: “Qal Jabir in the chapters of talawih”. Jabir used the word Talawih for Lustre. In the following, the instructions contained in the handwritten treatise of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna, have all been read and then translated into Farsi.
Analysis and adaptation of Lustre glass works with the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna
1- Analysis of the elemental composition of the instructions of Lustre in Risalah Al-Durra Al- Meknuna: From the analysis of the instructions presented in this treatise, it can be seen that in the instructions contained in the book of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna, metals such as copper and silver were used the most, so that copper was used in about 85% and silver in 73% of the instructions. In today’s research conducted by Brill and other researchers on gold, it has been determined that silver and its compounds cause a golden yellow color and copper compounds also cause a red color. The chemical analyzes of Lustre glasses from the early Islamic periods show that the elements used in them are in accordance with the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna. If Brill’s chemical study, regarding a number of golden pieces of glass in the Corning Glass Museum, also confirms this (Brill, 1970). Also, the description of the stages of implementation of Lustre and the baking conditions is a revival of what is clearly stated in the description of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna.
2- Match in color variety: Reading the instructions of Risalah Al-Durra Al- Meknuna shows that the instructions can create different color spectrums (Table 2). On the other hand, the examination of the works and samples presented in this research also indicates that Lustre is made in different color ranges such as yellow, dark brown, light brown, red, reddish, golden, blue, rainbow. . This shows that the artists used many instructions for painting Lustre and were not limited to one instruction. Also, in the early period of the emergence of Lustre, two or more colors were used together, which is known as multi-color Lustre.
3- Comparison of the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna and the works of Lustre glass according to the implementation method: Studying some of the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna, shows that Jaber emphasizes on the internal and external coloring of the object after presenting the instructions (image no. 4). The external and internal painting of objects in the presented glass works is quite evident and is one of the characteristics of Lustre glass in the early period. In pictures No. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 19 and 20, it can be seen that Lustre paintings were done inside and outside.
Conclusion
The sample of works shows that there are a very limited number of works that have inscriptions containing information about the place of construction or the date. However, numerous works obtained show that Syrian countries such as Iraq, Egypt and even Iran were active in the production of glass painted with Lustre enamel during the Abbasids, Copts and Fatimids. The chemical analysis of the Lustre glasses of the early Islamic periods shows that the elements used in them are in accordance with the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna. If the chemical study of Brill, regarding a number of Lustre pieces of glass in the Corning Museum of Glass, also confirms this fact that there are silver and copper as the main material in the surface of the glass. Also, the description of the stages of implementation of Lustre and the baking conditions is a revival of what is clearly stated in the description of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna. And Jaber also mentions the baking of relish under the instructions. The technical reading of the treatise Al-Durra Al- Meknuna shows that the instructions of Lustre can create diverse color spectrums, as 12 different color spectrums are presented. Various elements, metals and compounds used in Jaber’s instructions are among the main and effective factors on the variety of colors created. In this way, copper compounds produce ruby-red and copper-red colors, and instructions with silver compounds produce green-golden or yellow-golden gilts. As Pradel has confirmed, yellow, brown and deep brown, amber, orange and sometimes gold colors are created by the combined use of copper and silver compounds. This issue shows the conformity of colored works and samples with the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna. Also, in the comparative comparison of the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna and the works of Lustre Shihrah based on the method of execution, it shows that Jaber emphasizes on the interior and exterior coloring of the object under some of the instructions. The external and internal coloring and painting of the objects in the presented glass works are quite evident, especially in the works such as cups, bowls, and especially the works that have stability, and this subject is in complete agreement with the instructions contained in the book of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna.
Lustre is an enamel painting on glass or glaze, which is baked in a furnace with a regenerating environment, and after the baking process is completed, it forms a shiny layer with a metallic polish. This metallic luster can be in different color ranges such as gold or copper red, which is created by copper and silver nanoparticles. The first works that have been obtained from the implementation of the Lustre technique are on glass containers. However, according to the theory of most researchers, this technique was used on glazed pottery from the 3rd century AH and continued. On the other hand, in the historical sources, the instructions of Lustre on Abgineh are discussed in the manuscript of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna. In the present research, it has been tried to answer the question, what are the points of commonality between the glass works of Lustre and the instructions of Risalah Al-Durra Al- Meknuna? The current research is of fundamental type and the scientific information and historical documents of the research were collected in the form of documents and then analyzed and explained using the descriptive-analytical research method. The results show that the elements used in the gilding of the glasses of the early Islamic periods are in accordance with the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna. Also, there is a match between Lustre’s glass works and the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknunain the way and implementation of coloring and also in the color variation.
Keywords: Glass of the Islamic Era, Lustre Enamel, Al-Durra Al- Meknuna, Lustre Glass.
Introduction
The method of collecting information will be based on library sources. The research method is based on the way of collecting information in the form of descriptive and analytical research and the type of basic research. In this research, it has been tried to collect Zarinfam glass works from books and also from the reliable sites of different museums.
An overview of the history of Lustre glass and the theory of transfer of Lustre technology from glass to pottery:
The theory of the transfer of Lustre from glass to pottery argues that the oldest documented date for the method of Lustre is related to glass and belongs to the 2nd century of Hijri and was produced in Egypt. This theory emphasizes that this technology was gradually transferred from Egypt to Basra, Iraq over time, and then transferred to pottery by Iraqi potters in the 3rd century AH. (Carl Johan Lamm, 1941; Akbari, 1393: 4 & Porter, 1381: 15; Carboni, 2001:51).
Finally, it should be mentioned that the basic questions regarding the works obtained from Syria, Iraq and even Iran remain unanswered and it is still possible to attribute the origin of Lustre glass to each of the mentioned countries. In an article entitled: Analysis of the theory of the transfer of gilded glass technology from glass to pottery, based on the treatise Al-Durra Al- Meknuna, Mirshfi’i has tried to emphasize that the oldest written work related to Lustre glass is the handwritten treatise Al-Durra Al- Meknuna written by Jaber bin Hayyan. And this treatise is even older than the Egyptian glass work (163 AH) which has been cited by researchers, and it shows the familiarity and production of Lustre by glassmakers in Iraq in the first half of the second century. In fact, it can be said that since the 3rd century A.H., Lustre flourishes on pottery and probably the production of Lustre glasses has decreased from this period onwards and then stopped. Of course, considering that in the book Javahernameh Nizami in the 6th century of Hijri, there are instructions that mention the production of Lustre both on pottery and on glass, it can be said that the production of Lustre on glass was still common until this time. is (at least in Iran). This is despite the fact that in the written works of the following centuries, such as Arais al-Jawahir and Nafais al-Ataib in 700 AH and even the treatise of Cipriano Piccolpaso in 966 AH, only the golden instructions on pottery were discussed.
Discussion
Glass works with Lustre painting:
The collection and study of the works of the first centuries of golden glass have been taken from the written sources of the researchers as well as the works available in the prestigious sites of different museums of the world. This sample of works will help us in accordance with the instructions of Risalah al-Darrah al-Makununa. Finally, these works are compiled in table number (1) based on the estimated construction date.
Instructions related to Lustre glass in Al-Durra Al- Meknuna manuscript:
The instructions related to Lustre, in the treatise of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna, start from page 9 of the book and with the words: “Qal Jabir in the chapters of talawih”. Jabir used the word Talawih for Lustre. In the following, the instructions contained in the handwritten treatise of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna, have all been read and then translated into Farsi.
Analysis and adaptation of Lustre glass works with the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna
1- Analysis of the elemental composition of the instructions of Lustre in Risalah Al-Durra Al- Meknuna: From the analysis of the instructions presented in this treatise, it can be seen that in the instructions contained in the book of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna, metals such as copper and silver were used the most, so that copper was used in about 85% and silver in 73% of the instructions. In today’s research conducted by Brill and other researchers on gold, it has been determined that silver and its compounds cause a golden yellow color and copper compounds also cause a red color. The chemical analyzes of Lustre glasses from the early Islamic periods show that the elements used in them are in accordance with the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna. If Brill’s chemical study, regarding a number of golden pieces of glass in the Corning Glass Museum, also confirms this (Brill, 1970). Also, the description of the stages of implementation of Lustre and the baking conditions is a revival of what is clearly stated in the description of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna.
2- Match in color variety: Reading the instructions of Risalah Al-Durra Al- Meknuna shows that the instructions can create different color spectrums (Table 2). On the other hand, the examination of the works and samples presented in this research also indicates that Lustre is made in different color ranges such as yellow, dark brown, light brown, red, reddish, golden, blue, rainbow. . This shows that the artists used many instructions for painting Lustre and were not limited to one instruction. Also, in the early period of the emergence of Lustre, two or more colors were used together, which is known as multi-color Lustre.
3- Comparison of the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna and the works of Lustre glass according to the implementation method: Studying some of the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna, shows that Jaber emphasizes on the internal and external coloring of the object after presenting the instructions (image no. 4). The external and internal painting of objects in the presented glass works is quite evident and is one of the characteristics of Lustre glass in the early period. In pictures No. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12, 19 and 20, it can be seen that Lustre paintings were done inside and outside.
Conclusion
The sample of works shows that there are a very limited number of works that have inscriptions containing information about the place of construction or the date. However, numerous works obtained show that Syrian countries such as Iraq, Egypt and even Iran were active in the production of glass painted with Lustre enamel during the Abbasids, Copts and Fatimids. The chemical analysis of the Lustre glasses of the early Islamic periods shows that the elements used in them are in accordance with the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna. If the chemical study of Brill, regarding a number of Lustre pieces of glass in the Corning Museum of Glass, also confirms this fact that there are silver and copper as the main material in the surface of the glass. Also, the description of the stages of implementation of Lustre and the baking conditions is a revival of what is clearly stated in the description of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna. And Jaber also mentions the baking of relish under the instructions. The technical reading of the treatise Al-Durra Al- Meknuna shows that the instructions of Lustre can create diverse color spectrums, as 12 different color spectrums are presented. Various elements, metals and compounds used in Jaber’s instructions are among the main and effective factors on the variety of colors created. In this way, copper compounds produce ruby-red and copper-red colors, and instructions with silver compounds produce green-golden or yellow-golden gilts. As Pradel has confirmed, yellow, brown and deep brown, amber, orange and sometimes gold colors are created by the combined use of copper and silver compounds. This issue shows the conformity of colored works and samples with the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna. Also, in the comparative comparison of the instructions of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna and the works of Lustre Shihrah based on the method of execution, it shows that Jaber emphasizes on the interior and exterior coloring of the object under some of the instructions. The external and internal coloring and painting of the objects in the presented glass works are quite evident, especially in the works such as cups, bowls, and especially the works that have stability, and this subject is in complete agreement with the instructions contained in the book of Al-Durra Al- Meknuna.
Ahmad Nikgoftar, Abed Taghavi, Hasan Hashemi Zarj Abad, Amin Moradi,
year 8, Issue 30 (1-2025)
year 8, Issue 30 (1-2025)
Abstract
Abstract
The historical city of Esfarayen is one of the most important and glorious cities of the Islamic period, which was one of the important provinces of Neishapur until the Mongol invasion, and shortly after the Mongol invasion and the destruction of Neishapur, it was revived and flourished more than before when the Ilkhanids came to power. At the beginning of Timur’s rule, this city was severely destroyed, and from the end of Timur’s period to the end of Shah Abbas Safaviy’s rule, it grew relatively slowly with political ups and downs, and it was abandoned due to the attack of Afghans and population changes. One of the most important valuable goods that was exported from China to other regions from the third to the twelfth century A.H. is Celadon pottery and the other is blue-white pottery. According to the 9 seasons of archaeological exploration in Shahr-e Belqays, 5 pieces of celadon and 2 pieces of blue-white pottery have been found, which have not been studied so far, and for this reason, research was necessary. The main questions of this research are, first of all, what period do these celadons and blue-and-white porcelain belong to? Secondly, according to the technical structure and typological comparison, are the pottery produced locally or extra-regionally, and how did it enter the city of Esfarayen? The third question is the reason for the presence of this type of pottery in the historical city of Esfarayen based on the archaeological context and historical documents. The descriptive-analytical research method and data collection method is based on field and library studies. The results showed that the celadons belong to the 2nd to the 8th century A.H. and the blue-and-white pottery are dated to the beginning of the 8th to the 11th century. The celadons and blue-whites studied are completely non-native and entered the city of Esfarayen by sea and land. Due to the quality and rarity, the type of motifs and the type of lines and writing themes are related to the noble and wealthy classes of the city.
Keywords: Shahr-e Belqays, Esfarayen, Islamic Period, Chinese Pottery, Ming Dynasty.
Introduction
Due to the strategic position of the land of Iran, which has always been on the path of important East-West communication routes from the past to the present, with a branch of the Silk Road passing through its soil as an intermediary between the civilizations of the Far East, especially China and Its western neighbors were like Iraq and Syria. Among the goods exported from China are the famous Celadon pottery and blue-and-white pottery. Due to the importance of Celadon and blue-and-white pottery, many countries were competing with each other based on their geographical region at that time to take over the market for the products of this art and industry. China was the main manufacturer of this product and Iran was the main highway for the commercial connection of this product to Europe and Africa. The city of Esfarayen is one of the important cities of the Islamic period, which was located on the commercial route of the Silk Road (Moghdisi, 1982: 566); (Ibn-e Howqal, 1986: 188; Jihani, 1988: 149); (Ibn-e Khurdazbah, 1991: 222). Due to the presence of powerful rulers and politicians such as Abu al-Abbas Esfarayeni in the Samanid and Ghaznavid periods, in the Seljuq and Ilkhanid periods such as Saeed Malik Bahauddin Juvini and in the Safavid period, Abu Muslim Khan enjoyed special growth and development and is one of the most prosperous and prosperous cities. Khorasan was considered that the commercial highways passed through this city (Aubin, 1971:121). In addition to crossing the trade route, the existence of thriving markets (Idrisi, 1409 AH, Vol. 2: 690-693)، (Hamiri, 1984: 56), and the production of important goods such as: cloth, metal containers, pottery, makes merchants and In addition to supplying goods imported from far away to this city, merchants should distribute the goods produced in this city to nearby cities and distant places, especially the Iranian plateau, Shamat, Anatolian Peninsula, North Africa, etc. One of the most important imported goods and popular among the governors and residents of this city is the dishes known as Celadon and Blue White, of which 5 pieces of such dishes have been discovered in archaeological excavations (Nikgoftar, 2014). Considering the discovery of this pottery from the archaeological context and the lack of introduction and study of it, and from the mention of writing marks on their surface, the upcoming article tries to analyze them in the context of history and archeology in addition to introducing and reading the lines.
.
Discussion and reasoning
In the archaeological excavations of the city of Esfarayen, a total of 4 pieces of celadon pottery were found, one of which is of the Yue type (3rd-4th century) and the rest is of the Lank Chuan type (6th and 7th century). By examining and comparing these types of pottery, it can be said that in addition to neighboring areas and extra-regional areas, there has been direct or indirect trade with China since the 3rd century, considering the increase in the number of Lankchuan pottery related to the 6th century. And seventhly, from the reference of historical documents about the rule of the Jovini family over this city, their good relations with the Genghis family and the handing over of the government of the western part of Khorasan to this family (Jovini, 2012, vol.2, 222) and the political-economic journey of this family to Mongolia (ibid.: 222) and from the discovery of coins from this period in neighboring regions (Nikgoftar & Behnamfar, 2008) and extra-regional (ТЮНИБЕКЯАН, 2003) it can be said that in this period, Lank Chuan pottery came through the trade route of the Silk Road. That Esfarayen was located in one of these important commercial branches (Maghdisi, 1982: 566); (Ibn-e Howqal, 1986: 188; Jihani, 1988: 149); (Ibn-e Khurdazbah, 1991: 222) entered this city. Among other pottery that can be seen in China and Islamic lands in a significant way after Celadon is blue-and-white pottery, the production of these vessels became common in the states of Jijiang, Jianshui, Yusi and Jiangshan from the Yuan Dynasty, but the best type In the Jindjin states in the city of Chin Khwa (Chin-Hwa), which was related to the imperial furnaces (Bahranipour, 2022: 8). In the archaeological excavations in Shahr-e Belqays, 2 pieces of blue-and-white pottery were identified, which according to the decorations and technical structure belong to the late Timurid and Safavid periods and the Ming period in China. It has been stated that according to the reference of historical documents and archaeological data mentioned above about the importance, value and use of these vessels and from the motifs and lines used and the examination of the technical structure of the vessels which proves that they are non-native, in general, it can be He said that these dishes were made for the order or use of the rich class and nobles in this city.
Conclusion
By studying the piece of Chinese pottery in the city of Esfarayen, so far, two prominent pottery types of Celadan and blue-and-white have been obtained, the first group of Celadan; that by comparative comparison of this species in terms of technical structure such as; The type of paste, glaze and construction form with examples of ceramics obtained from the sites of the Islamic period such as; Siraf, Mehruban, Kish, Neishapur, and Bandar Najiram, it can be said that this type of celadan is imported and non-native, and in terms of chronology, it is similar to the Yue and Lank Chuan types at the same time as the Samanian period until the end of the Ilkhanate period. The increase in the number of Lankchuan type of celadan along with other archaeological evidence and historical documents prove the prosperity and prosperity of this city in the Ilkhanid period and a transregional and global trade connection. Among the other types of pottery that were mentioned are blue-and-white pottery, according to the comparative studies and examination of their technical structure, this type is also imported, according to the references in the historical documents about the destruction of this city in the attack of Timur and its lack of prosperity. It can be said that the presence of this type of pottery in this city dates back to the late Timurid period and the early Safavid period, during which time this city prospered again. According to the taxonomic examination and comparison of the pottery, which is completely similar to the pottery discovered in Hormuz, Taiwan, and the samples obtained from North Africa, it can be said that probably these pottery were indirectly and transregionally and globally from China to the port of Hormuz. And through the south-north highway and through the Jerjan-Tos commercial road, which was restored and reconstructed by Amir Ali Shir Navai in this period, he entered the city of Safrayan. Due to the rarity, quality of construction, themes and motifs, and on the one hand, historical documents indicate that these dishes were used in royal banquets or royal tombs, and from the discovery of these pieces from the citadel and noble houses, it can be said that these dishes are unique to The privileged and prosperous classes belonged to the historical city of Esfarayen. In general, the Chinese writings in the blue-and-white earthenware of Esfarayen city are as follows: the text of container number 9, the writing on the bottom of the container is incomplete and illegible, and the text on the bottom of the container contains the Chinese word called (peace, comfort), (longevity), (happiness) and (health). The text of container number 13 is written with the comparison and typology of the Chinese word du-ming-nlen-zuo, meaning the construction of the Ming period.
The historical city of Esfarayen is one of the most important and glorious cities of the Islamic period, which was one of the important provinces of Neishapur until the Mongol invasion, and shortly after the Mongol invasion and the destruction of Neishapur, it was revived and flourished more than before when the Ilkhanids came to power. At the beginning of Timur’s rule, this city was severely destroyed, and from the end of Timur’s period to the end of Shah Abbas Safaviy’s rule, it grew relatively slowly with political ups and downs, and it was abandoned due to the attack of Afghans and population changes. One of the most important valuable goods that was exported from China to other regions from the third to the twelfth century A.H. is Celadon pottery and the other is blue-white pottery. According to the 9 seasons of archaeological exploration in Shahr-e Belqays, 5 pieces of celadon and 2 pieces of blue-white pottery have been found, which have not been studied so far, and for this reason, research was necessary. The main questions of this research are, first of all, what period do these celadons and blue-and-white porcelain belong to? Secondly, according to the technical structure and typological comparison, are the pottery produced locally or extra-regionally, and how did it enter the city of Esfarayen? The third question is the reason for the presence of this type of pottery in the historical city of Esfarayen based on the archaeological context and historical documents. The descriptive-analytical research method and data collection method is based on field and library studies. The results showed that the celadons belong to the 2nd to the 8th century A.H. and the blue-and-white pottery are dated to the beginning of the 8th to the 11th century. The celadons and blue-whites studied are completely non-native and entered the city of Esfarayen by sea and land. Due to the quality and rarity, the type of motifs and the type of lines and writing themes are related to the noble and wealthy classes of the city.
Keywords: Shahr-e Belqays, Esfarayen, Islamic Period, Chinese Pottery, Ming Dynasty.
Introduction
Due to the strategic position of the land of Iran, which has always been on the path of important East-West communication routes from the past to the present, with a branch of the Silk Road passing through its soil as an intermediary between the civilizations of the Far East, especially China and Its western neighbors were like Iraq and Syria. Among the goods exported from China are the famous Celadon pottery and blue-and-white pottery. Due to the importance of Celadon and blue-and-white pottery, many countries were competing with each other based on their geographical region at that time to take over the market for the products of this art and industry. China was the main manufacturer of this product and Iran was the main highway for the commercial connection of this product to Europe and Africa. The city of Esfarayen is one of the important cities of the Islamic period, which was located on the commercial route of the Silk Road (Moghdisi, 1982: 566); (Ibn-e Howqal, 1986: 188; Jihani, 1988: 149); (Ibn-e Khurdazbah, 1991: 222). Due to the presence of powerful rulers and politicians such as Abu al-Abbas Esfarayeni in the Samanid and Ghaznavid periods, in the Seljuq and Ilkhanid periods such as Saeed Malik Bahauddin Juvini and in the Safavid period, Abu Muslim Khan enjoyed special growth and development and is one of the most prosperous and prosperous cities. Khorasan was considered that the commercial highways passed through this city (Aubin, 1971:121). In addition to crossing the trade route, the existence of thriving markets (Idrisi, 1409 AH, Vol. 2: 690-693)، (Hamiri, 1984: 56), and the production of important goods such as: cloth, metal containers, pottery, makes merchants and In addition to supplying goods imported from far away to this city, merchants should distribute the goods produced in this city to nearby cities and distant places, especially the Iranian plateau, Shamat, Anatolian Peninsula, North Africa, etc. One of the most important imported goods and popular among the governors and residents of this city is the dishes known as Celadon and Blue White, of which 5 pieces of such dishes have been discovered in archaeological excavations (Nikgoftar, 2014). Considering the discovery of this pottery from the archaeological context and the lack of introduction and study of it, and from the mention of writing marks on their surface, the upcoming article tries to analyze them in the context of history and archeology in addition to introducing and reading the lines.
.
Discussion and reasoning
In the archaeological excavations of the city of Esfarayen, a total of 4 pieces of celadon pottery were found, one of which is of the Yue type (3rd-4th century) and the rest is of the Lank Chuan type (6th and 7th century). By examining and comparing these types of pottery, it can be said that in addition to neighboring areas and extra-regional areas, there has been direct or indirect trade with China since the 3rd century, considering the increase in the number of Lankchuan pottery related to the 6th century. And seventhly, from the reference of historical documents about the rule of the Jovini family over this city, their good relations with the Genghis family and the handing over of the government of the western part of Khorasan to this family (Jovini, 2012, vol.2, 222) and the political-economic journey of this family to Mongolia (ibid.: 222) and from the discovery of coins from this period in neighboring regions (Nikgoftar & Behnamfar, 2008) and extra-regional (ТЮНИБЕКЯАН, 2003) it can be said that in this period, Lank Chuan pottery came through the trade route of the Silk Road. That Esfarayen was located in one of these important commercial branches (Maghdisi, 1982: 566); (Ibn-e Howqal, 1986: 188; Jihani, 1988: 149); (Ibn-e Khurdazbah, 1991: 222) entered this city. Among other pottery that can be seen in China and Islamic lands in a significant way after Celadon is blue-and-white pottery, the production of these vessels became common in the states of Jijiang, Jianshui, Yusi and Jiangshan from the Yuan Dynasty, but the best type In the Jindjin states in the city of Chin Khwa (Chin-Hwa), which was related to the imperial furnaces (Bahranipour, 2022: 8). In the archaeological excavations in Shahr-e Belqays, 2 pieces of blue-and-white pottery were identified, which according to the decorations and technical structure belong to the late Timurid and Safavid periods and the Ming period in China. It has been stated that according to the reference of historical documents and archaeological data mentioned above about the importance, value and use of these vessels and from the motifs and lines used and the examination of the technical structure of the vessels which proves that they are non-native, in general, it can be He said that these dishes were made for the order or use of the rich class and nobles in this city.
Conclusion
By studying the piece of Chinese pottery in the city of Esfarayen, so far, two prominent pottery types of Celadan and blue-and-white have been obtained, the first group of Celadan; that by comparative comparison of this species in terms of technical structure such as; The type of paste, glaze and construction form with examples of ceramics obtained from the sites of the Islamic period such as; Siraf, Mehruban, Kish, Neishapur, and Bandar Najiram, it can be said that this type of celadan is imported and non-native, and in terms of chronology, it is similar to the Yue and Lank Chuan types at the same time as the Samanian period until the end of the Ilkhanate period. The increase in the number of Lankchuan type of celadan along with other archaeological evidence and historical documents prove the prosperity and prosperity of this city in the Ilkhanid period and a transregional and global trade connection. Among the other types of pottery that were mentioned are blue-and-white pottery, according to the comparative studies and examination of their technical structure, this type is also imported, according to the references in the historical documents about the destruction of this city in the attack of Timur and its lack of prosperity. It can be said that the presence of this type of pottery in this city dates back to the late Timurid period and the early Safavid period, during which time this city prospered again. According to the taxonomic examination and comparison of the pottery, which is completely similar to the pottery discovered in Hormuz, Taiwan, and the samples obtained from North Africa, it can be said that probably these pottery were indirectly and transregionally and globally from China to the port of Hormuz. And through the south-north highway and through the Jerjan-Tos commercial road, which was restored and reconstructed by Amir Ali Shir Navai in this period, he entered the city of Safrayan. Due to the rarity, quality of construction, themes and motifs, and on the one hand, historical documents indicate that these dishes were used in royal banquets or royal tombs, and from the discovery of these pieces from the citadel and noble houses, it can be said that these dishes are unique to The privileged and prosperous classes belonged to the historical city of Esfarayen. In general, the Chinese writings in the blue-and-white earthenware of Esfarayen city are as follows: the text of container number 9, the writing on the bottom of the container is incomplete and illegible, and the text on the bottom of the container contains the Chinese word called (peace, comfort), (longevity), (happiness) and (health). The text of container number 13 is written with the comparison and typology of the Chinese word du-ming-nlen-zuo, meaning the construction of the Ming period.
Mosayyeb Ahmadyousefi Sarhadi, Mahid Montazer Zohouri, Saeed Amirhajloo,
year 9, Issue 32 (8-2025)
year 9, Issue 32 (8-2025)
Abstract
Abstract
South Rudbar Plain, with an area of more than 6000 square kilometers, is one of the important archaeological areas in the southeast of the Halil-Rood cultural area. This area, due to its favorable environmental conditions, including the permanent water of the Halil-Rood River, the fertile and vast plains, and the pasture heights in the northern part, as well as due to its geographical capacity and the communication route between Sindh and Sistan to Jiroft, was the foundation for the presence of human societies with the livelihood structures such as sedentary lifestyle and nomadic. As a result of two seasons of Archaeological surveys in South Rudbar plain during the last two decades, a number of ancient settlements were identified in this area. However, in these surveys, the focus is on pre-historic sites, while the sites of the Islamic era have not been studied deeply and completely, and only their GPS points have been recorded and incomplete descriptions of them have been provided. Therefore, answers have not yet been provided to questions about the role and influence of environmental factors on the distribution of Islamic settlements and the formation of livelihood organizations. In the following article, for the first time, the effect of environmental factors on Settlements of the Islamic era in Rudbar plain was studied with an analysis based on the findings of two archaeological surveys, documentary studies, and the preparation and interpretation of GIS maps. For this purpose, the settlements of Rudbar plain were divided into two time periods based on relative dating: “first to early middle Islamic centuries” and “late centuries (from the 10th century AH onwards)”. Then, environmental factors such as altitude above sea level, resources water, amount and direction of the slope of the lands, soil characteristics, and condition of roads in connection with settlement evidence were analyzed. The results of the research show that the most important factors affecting the formation, distribution, and organization of the livelihood of the Rudbar plain settlements in the Islamic era are the Halil-Rood River and the Aqueducts as the water sources in the peripheral parts, the trade route of Jiroft to Sind and Sistan, and the unevenness of the north and northeast for benefit from the potential of animal husbandry.
Keywords: South Roudbar, Environmental Factors, Distribution of Residence, GIS, Islamic Archaeology.
Introduction
The environment and its substrates are very important in examining the distribution pattern of ancient sites in a region. According to archaeological research, Rudbar plain has been a suitable place for human societies to live since at least the Copper Age (cf. Daneshi and Eskandari, 2016). This area as a commercial crossing (Yacoubi, 1963: 62) and one of the important areas of agricultural and livestock production (Sarhadi, 2017: 24), is very important in the archaeological studies of the Halil Road cultural area. However, the settlements of the Islamic era in the Rudbar plain do not have a share in the previous archeological studies and there are questions about this, which of the environmental factors and at what qualitative and quantitative level is effective in the distribution of settlements in the Rudbar plain in the south of Halil Roud cultural region during the Islamic era?
Based on this, the main purpose of this research is to investigate and analyze environmental factors affecting the formation and development of the Islamic settlements of Rudbar plain with a focus on geological features, altitude, water resources, and trade routes. Despite the numerous narratives of the early Islamic geographers about this region (see: Yaqoubi, 1963; Ibn Hawqal, 1966; Istakhari, 1994), no independent research has been done to identify and investigate the Islamic era settlements in Rudbar plain; and this issue shows the necessity and importance of this research. Also, the results of this research can help to understand the roots of the urban culture of this region in the early Islamic Middle Ages.
The current research is historical research and a descriptive-analytical method was used. Research data has been collected by documentary and field methods.
Discussion
The statistical database under study includes 53 sites and historical monuments, which are divided into two groups of settlement evidence, “first to seventh century AH” and “late Islamic centuries (Safavid and Qajar)” based on relative chronology (Tables 1 and 2). In order to explain the impact of environmental factors on the location of these sites and evidence, a geographic information system (GIS) has been used.
1. The effect of the height coefficient on the distribution of settlements
To explain the effect of height above sea level on the formation of the landscape and the distribution of the studied settlements, the height of the Rudbar plain is classified into eight classes (Figure 3, Chart 1). The largest number of cultural evidence representing the settlements of the Islamic era have been formed in this region at an altitude between 500 and 600 meters above the surface of open water, while only 4 sites have been found at an altitude of less than 400 meters above sea level. It seems that the large number of settlements at altitudes between 500 and 600 meters, which exactly covers the slopes of Rudbar Plain, is proof of the predominance of nomadic livelihoods in the Rudbar Plain during the Islamic era, and on the other hand, the small number of sites at an altitude of less than 400 meters can be analyzed in relation to the swampy condition of the Rudbar plain and the greater extent of the Jazmurian bed in the past.
2. The effect of water resources on the distribution of settlements
According to the maps obtained from GIS, most of the sites and evidence related to the settlements are located at a close distance from the surface water network, especially the Halil Rood River (Figure 4, Diagram 2). So, 17 sites, equivalent to 32% of the sites, were developed less than 5 kilometers away from Halil Rood River and under the direct influence of this water source. Another source of water is the Aqueduct. Among the sites of the Rudbar plain, especially those located on the edge of the plain and on the surface of the alluvial cone, were developed in connection with this water source (Figure 5).
3. The influence of the roads on the distribution of settlements
South Rudbar Plain was one of the important communication crossings of the Islamic era due to its location on the old communication and trade route from Indus to Jiroft (Yaqoubi, 1963: 62). According to the explanations of geographers about this ancient road, the current route of Rudbar to Iranshahr has been determined as a part of the aforementioned ancient route and the sites found have been investigated based on this route. As a result of this analysis, 17 sites with a significant linear extension in the west-east direction are located at a distance of 500 meters to 5 kilometers from this main communication road of the region (Figures 6 and 7, Diagram 3).
4. The influence of the slope of the land and its direction on the distribution of settlements
Based on the distribution map of sites and cultural materials related to the settlement of Islamic centuries in the Rudbar plain, we are facing a relatively flat land (Figure 8, Diagram 4). Regardless of the slope of the heights, we are facing a large and relatively flat plain where all the sites found were developed on a bed with a maximum slope of 5%. In fact, in terms of the relationship between the location of the sites and the slope of the land, no significant pattern can be defined. The settlements are located in various slope directions, including south, southeast, and southwest (Figure 9). Considering that the Rudbar plain is one of the tropical areas of the Halil River basin, it seems that the direction of the slope with a southern tendency is not logical. Therefore, it is clear that other environmental factors play a more important role in choosing a place of residence.
5. The effect of land use on the distribution of settlements
As a result of the land classification of Rudbar Plain based on the type of land use in the present era, four types of land use including pasture, agriculture, slopes, and the bed of Jazmurian Lake were investigated. Referring to the output map according to the type of land use, it seems that this factor played a decisive role in the distribution of settlements (Figure 10, Diagram 5). Considering the location of the settlements in connection with pasture and agricultural lands, the pattern of distribution can be interpreted in direct relation with the nomadic livelihood structure with a wider level and the agricultural structure with a smaller level during the Islamic era in the Rudbar Plain.
Conclusion
Rudbar plain is at the southern end of the Halil Rud cultural landscape and corresponds to the current city of Rudbar Jonoob. This region has been the foundation for the presence of human societies during the Islamic era due to its environmental talent, including the permanent water of the Halil River, fertile plains, and pasture heights, as well as being located on the ancient Sind-Jiroft trade route. Based on the analysis of settlement distribution and settlement evidence of the Islamic era and taking environmental factors into consideration, it seems that the cultural landscape of Rudbar plain during the Islamic era was mostly influenced by the variables of altitude, land use, and roads. As a result of the analysis, out of a total of 54 sites and settlement effects found, 50 points are affected by surface water sources such as Halil Rood River and aqueducts, as well as in connection with large pastures and small agricultural lands. Four other local evidence of settlement in the eastern end of the central plain, due to the lack of environmental facilities where they were formed, can only be explained in connection with the ancient road from Indus to Jiroft. Apart from these last four cases, the location of 13 sites/artifacts in the central plain of Rudbar, in addition to showing the relationship with other factors such as height and land use, has also been influenced by the road factor. In general, under the influence of the geographical and ecological factors of the Rudbar plain, the dominant livelihood of the people of the region during the Islamic era was formed based on providing resources through animal husbandry, agriculture, and trade.
South Rudbar Plain, with an area of more than 6000 square kilometers, is one of the important archaeological areas in the southeast of the Halil-Rood cultural area. This area, due to its favorable environmental conditions, including the permanent water of the Halil-Rood River, the fertile and vast plains, and the pasture heights in the northern part, as well as due to its geographical capacity and the communication route between Sindh and Sistan to Jiroft, was the foundation for the presence of human societies with the livelihood structures such as sedentary lifestyle and nomadic. As a result of two seasons of Archaeological surveys in South Rudbar plain during the last two decades, a number of ancient settlements were identified in this area. However, in these surveys, the focus is on pre-historic sites, while the sites of the Islamic era have not been studied deeply and completely, and only their GPS points have been recorded and incomplete descriptions of them have been provided. Therefore, answers have not yet been provided to questions about the role and influence of environmental factors on the distribution of Islamic settlements and the formation of livelihood organizations. In the following article, for the first time, the effect of environmental factors on Settlements of the Islamic era in Rudbar plain was studied with an analysis based on the findings of two archaeological surveys, documentary studies, and the preparation and interpretation of GIS maps. For this purpose, the settlements of Rudbar plain were divided into two time periods based on relative dating: “first to early middle Islamic centuries” and “late centuries (from the 10th century AH onwards)”. Then, environmental factors such as altitude above sea level, resources water, amount and direction of the slope of the lands, soil characteristics, and condition of roads in connection with settlement evidence were analyzed. The results of the research show that the most important factors affecting the formation, distribution, and organization of the livelihood of the Rudbar plain settlements in the Islamic era are the Halil-Rood River and the Aqueducts as the water sources in the peripheral parts, the trade route of Jiroft to Sind and Sistan, and the unevenness of the north and northeast for benefit from the potential of animal husbandry.
Keywords: South Roudbar, Environmental Factors, Distribution of Residence, GIS, Islamic Archaeology.
Introduction
The environment and its substrates are very important in examining the distribution pattern of ancient sites in a region. According to archaeological research, Rudbar plain has been a suitable place for human societies to live since at least the Copper Age (cf. Daneshi and Eskandari, 2016). This area as a commercial crossing (Yacoubi, 1963: 62) and one of the important areas of agricultural and livestock production (Sarhadi, 2017: 24), is very important in the archaeological studies of the Halil Road cultural area. However, the settlements of the Islamic era in the Rudbar plain do not have a share in the previous archeological studies and there are questions about this, which of the environmental factors and at what qualitative and quantitative level is effective in the distribution of settlements in the Rudbar plain in the south of Halil Roud cultural region during the Islamic era?
Based on this, the main purpose of this research is to investigate and analyze environmental factors affecting the formation and development of the Islamic settlements of Rudbar plain with a focus on geological features, altitude, water resources, and trade routes. Despite the numerous narratives of the early Islamic geographers about this region (see: Yaqoubi, 1963; Ibn Hawqal, 1966; Istakhari, 1994), no independent research has been done to identify and investigate the Islamic era settlements in Rudbar plain; and this issue shows the necessity and importance of this research. Also, the results of this research can help to understand the roots of the urban culture of this region in the early Islamic Middle Ages.
The current research is historical research and a descriptive-analytical method was used. Research data has been collected by documentary and field methods.
Discussion
The statistical database under study includes 53 sites and historical monuments, which are divided into two groups of settlement evidence, “first to seventh century AH” and “late Islamic centuries (Safavid and Qajar)” based on relative chronology (Tables 1 and 2). In order to explain the impact of environmental factors on the location of these sites and evidence, a geographic information system (GIS) has been used.
1. The effect of the height coefficient on the distribution of settlements
To explain the effect of height above sea level on the formation of the landscape and the distribution of the studied settlements, the height of the Rudbar plain is classified into eight classes (Figure 3, Chart 1). The largest number of cultural evidence representing the settlements of the Islamic era have been formed in this region at an altitude between 500 and 600 meters above the surface of open water, while only 4 sites have been found at an altitude of less than 400 meters above sea level. It seems that the large number of settlements at altitudes between 500 and 600 meters, which exactly covers the slopes of Rudbar Plain, is proof of the predominance of nomadic livelihoods in the Rudbar Plain during the Islamic era, and on the other hand, the small number of sites at an altitude of less than 400 meters can be analyzed in relation to the swampy condition of the Rudbar plain and the greater extent of the Jazmurian bed in the past.
2. The effect of water resources on the distribution of settlements
According to the maps obtained from GIS, most of the sites and evidence related to the settlements are located at a close distance from the surface water network, especially the Halil Rood River (Figure 4, Diagram 2). So, 17 sites, equivalent to 32% of the sites, were developed less than 5 kilometers away from Halil Rood River and under the direct influence of this water source. Another source of water is the Aqueduct. Among the sites of the Rudbar plain, especially those located on the edge of the plain and on the surface of the alluvial cone, were developed in connection with this water source (Figure 5).
3. The influence of the roads on the distribution of settlements
South Rudbar Plain was one of the important communication crossings of the Islamic era due to its location on the old communication and trade route from Indus to Jiroft (Yaqoubi, 1963: 62). According to the explanations of geographers about this ancient road, the current route of Rudbar to Iranshahr has been determined as a part of the aforementioned ancient route and the sites found have been investigated based on this route. As a result of this analysis, 17 sites with a significant linear extension in the west-east direction are located at a distance of 500 meters to 5 kilometers from this main communication road of the region (Figures 6 and 7, Diagram 3).
4. The influence of the slope of the land and its direction on the distribution of settlements
Based on the distribution map of sites and cultural materials related to the settlement of Islamic centuries in the Rudbar plain, we are facing a relatively flat land (Figure 8, Diagram 4). Regardless of the slope of the heights, we are facing a large and relatively flat plain where all the sites found were developed on a bed with a maximum slope of 5%. In fact, in terms of the relationship between the location of the sites and the slope of the land, no significant pattern can be defined. The settlements are located in various slope directions, including south, southeast, and southwest (Figure 9). Considering that the Rudbar plain is one of the tropical areas of the Halil River basin, it seems that the direction of the slope with a southern tendency is not logical. Therefore, it is clear that other environmental factors play a more important role in choosing a place of residence.
5. The effect of land use on the distribution of settlements
As a result of the land classification of Rudbar Plain based on the type of land use in the present era, four types of land use including pasture, agriculture, slopes, and the bed of Jazmurian Lake were investigated. Referring to the output map according to the type of land use, it seems that this factor played a decisive role in the distribution of settlements (Figure 10, Diagram 5). Considering the location of the settlements in connection with pasture and agricultural lands, the pattern of distribution can be interpreted in direct relation with the nomadic livelihood structure with a wider level and the agricultural structure with a smaller level during the Islamic era in the Rudbar Plain.
Conclusion
Rudbar plain is at the southern end of the Halil Rud cultural landscape and corresponds to the current city of Rudbar Jonoob. This region has been the foundation for the presence of human societies during the Islamic era due to its environmental talent, including the permanent water of the Halil River, fertile plains, and pasture heights, as well as being located on the ancient Sind-Jiroft trade route. Based on the analysis of settlement distribution and settlement evidence of the Islamic era and taking environmental factors into consideration, it seems that the cultural landscape of Rudbar plain during the Islamic era was mostly influenced by the variables of altitude, land use, and roads. As a result of the analysis, out of a total of 54 sites and settlement effects found, 50 points are affected by surface water sources such as Halil Rood River and aqueducts, as well as in connection with large pastures and small agricultural lands. Four other local evidence of settlement in the eastern end of the central plain, due to the lack of environmental facilities where they were formed, can only be explained in connection with the ancient road from Indus to Jiroft. Apart from these last four cases, the location of 13 sites/artifacts in the central plain of Rudbar, in addition to showing the relationship with other factors such as height and land use, has also been influenced by the road factor. In general, under the influence of the geographical and ecological factors of the Rudbar plain, the dominant livelihood of the people of the region during the Islamic era was formed based on providing resources through animal husbandry, agriculture, and trade.
Vahid Zolfi Heris, Hassan Hashemi Zarj Abad, Abed Taghavi, Ali Farhani,
year 9, Issue 32 (8-2025)
year 9, Issue 32 (8-2025)
Abstract
Abstract
Undoubtedly, the southern area of Tehran province, which has been formed in the fourth region over time, especially in the late Islamic centuries, based on historical sources; It was always of great importance for the governments of this era from the point of view of geographical and political location. One of the reasons for the importance of this area was its location on three important communication routes that connected Tehran to Qom. The above research was carried out with the objectives of identifying and documenting as well as understanding the formation and function of related facilities in the ancient roads located in the south of Tehran to Qom province, in which two questions are also raised: 1) the most important communication roads located in the southern part of the province What are the communication routes between Tehran and Qom? And 2) which pattern or patterns did the studied road network generally follow? Based on this and relying on historical written sources and archeological field studies, we can propose the following hypotheses: three important communication routes in the studied area, from the dimensions of road scenery [residence-welfare, security-guidance-movement scenery] which are a They were a coherent group, they obeyed. Routes that, apart from having (commercial and economic effects) Functions on the communities living in their neighborhood; they also had many effects on the (cultural and social relations) of these societies. The present research was done with descriptive-analytical method and gathering information in the form of documentary and historical studies and archeological investigations. The results of the present research indicate that three important communication networks [1) Abdul Azim Ray Gate - Kenargerd - Dier kechein - Qom, 2) Aliabad - Hoze Sultan - Qom (abandoned) and 3) Aliabad - Manzariyeh - Qom] in the southern region of Tehran province. It was located towards Qom in chronological order.
Keywords: Road Network, Tehran, Qom, Late Islamic Centuries, Archaeological Evidence, Historical Texts.
Introduction
Regarding the description and recognition of the ancient and communication routes from the south of Tehran province to Qom in the Islamic era, at the beginning with the center (Rey) and later (Tehran), there have been several historical and geographical documents that show that the communication routes The above in this area were of great importance for the governments of this period. Ibn Faqih, describing the main roads of Ray to the neighboring areas in terms of commercial nature, says: Goods were also produced by Ray artisans, they made crafts such as combs and salt pans, etc. from wood. Ray weavers were also famous worldwide and all kinds of They exported clothes to the eastern and western regions through the important roads of this city) (Ibn Faqih, 2000, 51). Moghdisi also writes about the roads of Ray from a (mobility-security) point of view: ((the easiest and most prosperous road in Iran is the road of Ray)) (Moghdisi, 1982: 718) and further says: it is clear that this feeling Comfort and security should be established for travelers so that they can easily take advantage of all the sights and facilities provided near the road (ibid., 574). Ibn Hawqal also paid attention to the Ray road from the (commercial nature) and in this context he says: Apart from Isfahan, which was a commercial and important city, from Iraq to Khorasan (Ray) can be mentioned, which is The reason for having different main and secondary ways in terms of production and export of goods is unique and significant (Ibn Hoqal, 1987: 106). Bakran considers the distance between Ray and Isfahan to be about 62 farsang (Bakran, 1963: 15) and Imam Shushtari, like Bakran, considers the distance between Ray and Isfahan to be 62 farsang (Imam Shoshtari, 1960: 35). Mostofi states that the distance between Ray and Isfahan is 86 farsang (Mostofi, 1983: 51). In the last few decades, our understanding of the above-mentioned communication routes relied more on the same historical documents. However, due to the abundance of archaeological evidence related to these routes, which included buildings and facilities related to them; In previous years, they have been studied and investigated by some researchers and archaeologists in the field, and these archeological evidences themselves support the first hypothesis in line with their alignment with the writings of historical-geographical texts and travelogues in the best possible recognition of communication routes. It illuminates between the two cities of Tehran and Qom.
Discussion
The southern region of Tehran province was considered as one of the key strategic and geographical regions during the late Islamic centuries. The existence of numerous buildings and intermediate structures in the three ancient routes of Tehran - Qom, shows the archaeological evidence and the importance of this region. As mentioned, this highway starts its route from the south of Tehran province and passing through the cities and villages located in this area to the city of Qom and from there, turning into several branches to other parts of the country such as Isfahan, Kashan, Arak and others. The southern regions are connected. One of the most important features of this highway is its (cultural and religious) dimension. The cultural and religious dimension of this course can be seen as the first option that was always considered by the rulers of the late Islamic centuries, especially Safavieh and Qajar. The reason for this importance was the existence of the holy court of Hazrat Masoumeh in the city of Qom. Therefore, this issue caused the rulers of the later Islamic centuries to build and erect numerous buildings and facilities on the way to the extent possible for the well-being of these pilgrims and caravans, and many of these buildings are still standing. Another importance of Tehran-Qom highway; It was connected with the Tehran-Khorasan highway, which along with this highway was also considered one of the cultural routes and thresholds of Iran’s nobility. The third strategic importance of the Tehran-Qom highway is the ((commercial)) dimension in the way that in the late Islamic centuries, this highway was a very important bridge for the exchange of commercial and commercial goods that went to Tehran and the north of the country through Bushehr port. were carried One of the other important issues that always add to the importance of the Tehran-Qom highway was the (political and military) dimensions, because the statesmen of the late Islamic centuries [Safavieh and Qajar] to advance their goals in these fields and reach the capital as quickly as possible. As well as the open waters through the Persian Gulf and the Oman Sea and on the other side of the Caspian Sea, they urgently needed a good route to achieve these goals, which has high levels of amenities and road-dependent facilities. Therefore, the existence of these mentioned dimensions has proved the special importance of the southern region of Tehran province.
Conclusion
Based on the questions and assumptions raised, as well as citing historical sources, archeological investigations and the analysis of these components together, we can reach the conclusion that the southern region of Tehran province due to its special cultural and political position that during the last centuries Islam has always been important from the rulers of this era, and on the other hand, categories such as trade brought the transfer of cultural and social experiences to the people living along these communication networks, and these communities themselves are somehow a part of this economic cycle. and were considered cultural. Therefore, the existence of these three important communication routes: 1) Abdul Azim Ray Gate - Kenargerd - Dier kechein - Qom 2) Aliabad - Hoze Sultan - Qom [abandoned] and 3) Aliabad - Manzariyeh - Qom, which also followed the patterns of Manzariyeh Road. The importance of this area is increasing. so, from the archaeological evidence that included buildings and intermediate structures [caravans and bridges], he also acknowledged that the studied routes were always the place of traffic and passage of many commercial caravans and travelers. However, several reasons can be imagined in the field of recognition, formation and functioning of these communication ways and the buildings and structures located in them: 1) the history and long history of the territory of southern Tehran province in the creation of roads and facilities related to them. 2) Two factors of preparation of main roads and provision of comfort facilities and safety of travelers and caravans ((road monitors)) which were realized by completing road construction and construction of intermediate buildings: a) establishment of caravanserais and shelters. b) Creating water structures and solving problems of lack of water in these routes (reservoirs and glaciers). c) Establishing security and guarding caravans and passengers. 3) The religious and political competitions of the governments of this period [Safavieh] with other governments [Osmani] in order to encourage the people of Iran to visit the shrines. 4) The military and administrative dimension and the political competition of the Western governments such as Russia and England were taking steps to dominate the roads of this region in the advancement of their colonial interests. In the end, what can be said about these ancient ways: that they are the same communication networks of today that have continued to exist with little changes.
Undoubtedly, the southern area of Tehran province, which has been formed in the fourth region over time, especially in the late Islamic centuries, based on historical sources; It was always of great importance for the governments of this era from the point of view of geographical and political location. One of the reasons for the importance of this area was its location on three important communication routes that connected Tehran to Qom. The above research was carried out with the objectives of identifying and documenting as well as understanding the formation and function of related facilities in the ancient roads located in the south of Tehran to Qom province, in which two questions are also raised: 1) the most important communication roads located in the southern part of the province What are the communication routes between Tehran and Qom? And 2) which pattern or patterns did the studied road network generally follow? Based on this and relying on historical written sources and archeological field studies, we can propose the following hypotheses: three important communication routes in the studied area, from the dimensions of road scenery [residence-welfare, security-guidance-movement scenery] which are a They were a coherent group, they obeyed. Routes that, apart from having (commercial and economic effects) Functions on the communities living in their neighborhood; they also had many effects on the (cultural and social relations) of these societies. The present research was done with descriptive-analytical method and gathering information in the form of documentary and historical studies and archeological investigations. The results of the present research indicate that three important communication networks [1) Abdul Azim Ray Gate - Kenargerd - Dier kechein - Qom, 2) Aliabad - Hoze Sultan - Qom (abandoned) and 3) Aliabad - Manzariyeh - Qom] in the southern region of Tehran province. It was located towards Qom in chronological order.
Keywords: Road Network, Tehran, Qom, Late Islamic Centuries, Archaeological Evidence, Historical Texts.
Introduction
Regarding the description and recognition of the ancient and communication routes from the south of Tehran province to Qom in the Islamic era, at the beginning with the center (Rey) and later (Tehran), there have been several historical and geographical documents that show that the communication routes The above in this area were of great importance for the governments of this period. Ibn Faqih, describing the main roads of Ray to the neighboring areas in terms of commercial nature, says: Goods were also produced by Ray artisans, they made crafts such as combs and salt pans, etc. from wood. Ray weavers were also famous worldwide and all kinds of They exported clothes to the eastern and western regions through the important roads of this city) (Ibn Faqih, 2000, 51). Moghdisi also writes about the roads of Ray from a (mobility-security) point of view: ((the easiest and most prosperous road in Iran is the road of Ray)) (Moghdisi, 1982: 718) and further says: it is clear that this feeling Comfort and security should be established for travelers so that they can easily take advantage of all the sights and facilities provided near the road (ibid., 574). Ibn Hawqal also paid attention to the Ray road from the (commercial nature) and in this context he says: Apart from Isfahan, which was a commercial and important city, from Iraq to Khorasan (Ray) can be mentioned, which is The reason for having different main and secondary ways in terms of production and export of goods is unique and significant (Ibn Hoqal, 1987: 106). Bakran considers the distance between Ray and Isfahan to be about 62 farsang (Bakran, 1963: 15) and Imam Shushtari, like Bakran, considers the distance between Ray and Isfahan to be 62 farsang (Imam Shoshtari, 1960: 35). Mostofi states that the distance between Ray and Isfahan is 86 farsang (Mostofi, 1983: 51). In the last few decades, our understanding of the above-mentioned communication routes relied more on the same historical documents. However, due to the abundance of archaeological evidence related to these routes, which included buildings and facilities related to them; In previous years, they have been studied and investigated by some researchers and archaeologists in the field, and these archeological evidences themselves support the first hypothesis in line with their alignment with the writings of historical-geographical texts and travelogues in the best possible recognition of communication routes. It illuminates between the two cities of Tehran and Qom.
Discussion
The southern region of Tehran province was considered as one of the key strategic and geographical regions during the late Islamic centuries. The existence of numerous buildings and intermediate structures in the three ancient routes of Tehran - Qom, shows the archaeological evidence and the importance of this region. As mentioned, this highway starts its route from the south of Tehran province and passing through the cities and villages located in this area to the city of Qom and from there, turning into several branches to other parts of the country such as Isfahan, Kashan, Arak and others. The southern regions are connected. One of the most important features of this highway is its (cultural and religious) dimension. The cultural and religious dimension of this course can be seen as the first option that was always considered by the rulers of the late Islamic centuries, especially Safavieh and Qajar. The reason for this importance was the existence of the holy court of Hazrat Masoumeh in the city of Qom. Therefore, this issue caused the rulers of the later Islamic centuries to build and erect numerous buildings and facilities on the way to the extent possible for the well-being of these pilgrims and caravans, and many of these buildings are still standing. Another importance of Tehran-Qom highway; It was connected with the Tehran-Khorasan highway, which along with this highway was also considered one of the cultural routes and thresholds of Iran’s nobility. The third strategic importance of the Tehran-Qom highway is the ((commercial)) dimension in the way that in the late Islamic centuries, this highway was a very important bridge for the exchange of commercial and commercial goods that went to Tehran and the north of the country through Bushehr port. were carried One of the other important issues that always add to the importance of the Tehran-Qom highway was the (political and military) dimensions, because the statesmen of the late Islamic centuries [Safavieh and Qajar] to advance their goals in these fields and reach the capital as quickly as possible. As well as the open waters through the Persian Gulf and the Oman Sea and on the other side of the Caspian Sea, they urgently needed a good route to achieve these goals, which has high levels of amenities and road-dependent facilities. Therefore, the existence of these mentioned dimensions has proved the special importance of the southern region of Tehran province.
Conclusion
Based on the questions and assumptions raised, as well as citing historical sources, archeological investigations and the analysis of these components together, we can reach the conclusion that the southern region of Tehran province due to its special cultural and political position that during the last centuries Islam has always been important from the rulers of this era, and on the other hand, categories such as trade brought the transfer of cultural and social experiences to the people living along these communication networks, and these communities themselves are somehow a part of this economic cycle. and were considered cultural. Therefore, the existence of these three important communication routes: 1) Abdul Azim Ray Gate - Kenargerd - Dier kechein - Qom 2) Aliabad - Hoze Sultan - Qom [abandoned] and 3) Aliabad - Manzariyeh - Qom, which also followed the patterns of Manzariyeh Road. The importance of this area is increasing. so, from the archaeological evidence that included buildings and intermediate structures [caravans and bridges], he also acknowledged that the studied routes were always the place of traffic and passage of many commercial caravans and travelers. However, several reasons can be imagined in the field of recognition, formation and functioning of these communication ways and the buildings and structures located in them: 1) the history and long history of the territory of southern Tehran province in the creation of roads and facilities related to them. 2) Two factors of preparation of main roads and provision of comfort facilities and safety of travelers and caravans ((road monitors)) which were realized by completing road construction and construction of intermediate buildings: a) establishment of caravanserais and shelters. b) Creating water structures and solving problems of lack of water in these routes (reservoirs and glaciers). c) Establishing security and guarding caravans and passengers. 3) The religious and political competitions of the governments of this period [Safavieh] with other governments [Osmani] in order to encourage the people of Iran to visit the shrines. 4) The military and administrative dimension and the political competition of the Western governments such as Russia and England were taking steps to dominate the roads of this region in the advancement of their colonial interests. In the end, what can be said about these ancient ways: that they are the same communication networks of today that have continued to exist with little changes.
Rahim Salamati, Farzad Mafi, Amir Hashempoor Mafi,
year 9, Issue 34 (3-2026)
year 9, Issue 34 (3-2026)
Abstract
Abstract
The county of Tarrom Olya is located in the northern part of Zanjan province, for reasons such as having a diverse climate, and its special location, in the middle of the provinces of Zanjan, Gialen, Ardabil and Qazvin is potentially important from the point of view of archeology. However, the field and library research’s done in relation to this area has not been as satisfactory in comparison with its size and importance. In this article, for the first time, the settlements of the Islamic era in Abbar and Darram of Tarrom Olya county have been examined and studied based on archaeological documents and historical texts. For this purpose, the 1400 years of the Islamic era have been divided into three periods, including the first centuries, the middle centuries and the late centuries of the Islamic period, and have been studied and examined both in terms of historical texts and archaeological materials. As a result, 25 sites, historical hills, cemeteries and buildings related to the Islamic period, which were identified in the field survey of Abbar and Drram regions, have been categorized into one of the three mentioned sections based on pottery level and analyzed. The purpose of this research is to answer some questions about the quantity and quality of Islamic settlements in the region, tracing Islamic settlements or buildings of the region in historical texts and identifying the key Islamic sites in the study area. The result of this study indicates that a significant number of the Islamic sites identified in the studied area were dynamic settlements in the first and middle centuries of the Islamic era. Based on the data obtained from the survey, including the size of the sites, it seems that some Islamic settlements in the region, including the site known as Drram Castle, were an important central settlement in the Tarrom Olya county during the Islamic era. The result of this research shows that despite the importance of communication in the region, the ancient sites of the Islamic era in the studied area, in general, have a small size and remain almost as rural settlements.
Keywords: Tarrom Olya, Abbar, Darram, Islamic Era, The Northern basin of Qezel-Uzan.
The county of Tarrom Olya is located in the northern part of Zanjan province, for reasons such as having a diverse climate, and its special location, in the middle of the provinces of Zanjan, Gialen, Ardabil and Qazvin is potentially important from the point of view of archeology. However, the field and library research’s done in relation to this area has not been as satisfactory in comparison with its size and importance. In this article, for the first time, the settlements of the Islamic era in Abbar and Darram of Tarrom Olya county have been examined and studied based on archaeological documents and historical texts. For this purpose, the 1400 years of the Islamic era have been divided into three periods, including the first centuries, the middle centuries and the late centuries of the Islamic period, and have been studied and examined both in terms of historical texts and archaeological materials. As a result, 25 sites, historical hills, cemeteries and buildings related to the Islamic period, which were identified in the field survey of Abbar and Drram regions, have been categorized into one of the three mentioned sections based on pottery level and analyzed. The purpose of this research is to answer some questions about the quantity and quality of Islamic settlements in the region, tracing Islamic settlements or buildings of the region in historical texts and identifying the key Islamic sites in the study area. The result of this study indicates that a significant number of the Islamic sites identified in the studied area were dynamic settlements in the first and middle centuries of the Islamic era. Based on the data obtained from the survey, including the size of the sites, it seems that some Islamic settlements in the region, including the site known as Drram Castle, were an important central settlement in the Tarrom Olya county during the Islamic era. The result of this research shows that despite the importance of communication in the region, the ancient sites of the Islamic era in the studied area, in general, have a small size and remain almost as rural settlements.
Keywords: Tarrom Olya, Abbar, Darram, Islamic Era, The Northern basin of Qezel-Uzan.
Introduction
Despite the location of the Tarrom region between the well-known cities of Zanjan, Ardabil, Qazvin, and Rasht, it has received less attention in historical texts compared to the aforementioned regions. The aim of this study, based on a field survey, is to investigate the identification, quality, and quantity of Islamic-era settlements in the study area and to analyze some relevant information from historical texts. The main questions addressed in this study are as follows: 1. What was the quality and quantity of Islamic-era settlements in the villages of Abbar and Darram? 2. What insights can be gained from comparing historical texts and archaeological evidence regarding the study area during the Islamic period? 3. Based on the survey data, which site or sites in the study area can be identified as the main centers in the basin of the Abbar and Darram villages during the Islamic period?
It is assumed that the study area housed various settlements during the Islamic period.
Research Method
This research was carried out in two parts: field and library studies. In the field section, the ancient sites of the study area were examined, and cultural materials, mainly including pottery fragments, were collected. In the library section, the Islamic pottery of the sites in the study area was typified, and the distribution of the sites in the region was examined and evaluated using common methods such as GIS. Additionally, special attention was paid to historical and geographical texts of the Islamic period in the library studies section.
Research Background
So far, very few archaeological studies have been conducted in the study area at Tarrom Olya County, the most important of which was the first season of the survey of Tarrom County under the supervision of A. Najafi in 2007, as a result of which 96 ancient sites related to different periods were identified (Najafi, 2007). The present study was conducted based on the results of this survey.
Discussion
- Historical and archaeological evidence of the study area in the early Islamic era
Historical sources indicate that during the Musafirid rule in the fourth century AH, the Tarrom region, particularly the fortress of Samiran, experienced a period of development and prosperity as mentioned in Naser Khosrow Qobadiani’s travelogue. Subsequently, the Tarrom region became a battleground between the Ismailis and Seljuks and a target for conquest by Mongol, Ilkhanid, and Timurid rulers seeking to control Gilan. Notably, Tughrol Beig visited Tarrom Castle in 454 AH and demanded a substantial sum from its ruler (Ibn Athir, 1991: vol. 22: 375). Various castles and locations in Tarrom, such as Andjan, Rustamkuyeh, Sheruz, Kufal, Harkam, Samiran, and Qalat, are mentioned in historical sources from this period (Hamawi, 1995; al-Baghdadi, 1412). Archaeological findings from eight sites in the Abbar and Darram districts, including Tape Las, Sharfan Darreh, Ghaybullah, Torobar, Tape Chenar, Mine Bala, Sibisun, and Dam, contain pottery dating back to the early Islamic period (Figs. 7 & 8, Table 2).
- Historical and archaeological evidence of the study area in the middle Islamic era
Tarrom also reappears in historical texts of the Mongol era due to its strategic location on the route to northern regions, particularly Gilan, and its proximity to key centers like Soltaniyeh (cf. Ibn Khaldun, 1984: vol. 4, 204; Hafez Abro, 2001, vol. 2: 572, 717, 766). The most accurate description of the Tarrom region at this time is provided by Hamdullah Mostofi Qazvini (d. 750 AH), who wrote:
“Tarromain is a warm province to the north of Soltaniyeh, a day’s journey away, and the harvest is very good in its highlands, and most of the fruits of Soltaniyeh come from there. At first, there was a city center called Firuzabad in the land of Lower Tarrom, but now it is completely ruined, and the town of Andar in Tarrom Olya has become the city there... The people of that province are Sunni Shafi’i, and that province has five parts: First, Upper Tarrom (Olya) was a vassal of Qala Taj, it includes about a hundred villages, and Jezla, Shawarzad, Darram, Jiya, Qalat, Zarand, and Shind are among its most important villages... (Mustofi, 1957: 71). Mustofi’s reference to Darram is the oldest reference to this place in historical texts.
At least seven sites in the study area in the villages of Abbar and Darram, including Abbar Cemetery, Torobar, Mine-Bala, Sibison, Dam, Kelavlagh, and Imamzadeh Vazneh-Sar, have had medieval Islamic pottery, especially Seljuk-Ilkhani pottery. These potteries are mostly glazed, sufficiently fired, and have various types of decoration, especially incised patterns, incised patterns under the glaze (Sgraffito), and underglaze painting (Table 3, Figs. 9 & 10).
- Historical and archaeological evidence of the study area in the later Islamic era
Historical records indicate that the Tarrom region remained of interest to Safavid rulers due to its proximity to important Safavid centers like Ardabil and Qazvin. For example, in 911 AH, Shah Ismail spent winter in Tarrom (Badlisi, 1998: Vol. 2, 137), and in 969 AH, Shah Tahmasb went to Tarrom for hunting (Ibid: 217). Pietro Della Valle, who traveled to the Tarrom region via Ardabil in 1619, during the reign of Shah Abbas I, reached Darram village through a narrow and difficult valley (Della Valle, 2005: 331-332). Della Valle’s description contains important information about the geographical features and communication routes of the region during the Safavid period.
From an archaeological point of view, some pottery sherds from the site of Burhan al-Saltaneh date back to the Timurid-Safavid period (Table 4 & Fig. 11). Notably, glazed pottery, including azure-glazed pieces likely from the Seljuk era, and monochromatic pottery with green, blue, and turquoise glaze possibly from the middle or late Islamic period, have been discovered at the study sites.
During the Qajar period, Tarrom continued to serve as a route for royal campaigns and recreational activities, with notable figures like Agha Mohammad Khan, Fath Ali Shah, and Naser al-Din Shah visiting the region (Fasai, 2003: Vol. 1, 645, & 720; Etemad al-Saltanah, 1988: Vol. 3, 1605). During this period, Rawlinson, while traveling to the region, mentioned Abbar and Darram as the two main places in the region of Posht kouh (Rawlinson 1840: 62-63). According to Rawlinson’s description, it is likely that part of the facility known today as Darram Castle is remains of the palace of Abdullah Mirza (d. 1263 AH), the son of Fath Ali Shah who was the ruler of Zanjan during the Qajar period. Based on our survey, Darram Castle is a large site dating back to the pre-Islamic and Islamic period, covering an area of about 20 hectares.
Additionally, based on the architectural style and type of materials, a number of buildings in the study area, including mosques or Imamzadeh, probably belong to the late Islamic period (mostly Qajar), of which we can mention Siahroud Bath, Imamzadeh Ebrahim, Imamzadeh Khatun Khadijeh, Burhan-ol-Saltaneh Mansion, Khasareh Bath, Khasareh Mosque, Molanour, and Imamzadeh Vazneh-Sar.
Conclusion
The analysis of historical texts and archaeological evidence provides valuable information about the settlements in the Tarrom region during the Islamic period, including the size of the settlements and communication routes in this region. Based on the data in Table 5, which was calculated based on our field survey, eight sites (44 percent) are less than one hectare in size. Eight sites are between one and five hectares (44%), and only three sites of Gerdeh Tepe, Tepe Qabristan, and Qala’e Darram are larger than five hectares, all three of which are located along the Qezel Uzan valley, along the main roads of the region. However, compared to the cities of the Islamic era, even these three sites are not considered large settlements. The map in Fig. 12 shows the distribution of Islamic sites in the study area regarding their sizes. Overall, these statistics indicate that most of the settlements in the Islamic period in the study area were, in fact, small, rural settlements, which is in exact accordance with the medieval geographers’ descriptions of the Tarrom as a region with numerous villages but no major city (see: Hamawi 1995: Vol. 2, p. 6; al-Baghdadi, 1412: 249).
It seems that Darram Castle can be considered a central settlement in the Islamic period in the Tarrom region due to its vast size of more than 20 hectares and its special location in the middle of the Qezel Uzan River valley, and the availability of important environmental components such as access to water resources and communication routes. Considering the description of Della Valle and the location of the Islamic sites in the study area, mainly in the Qezel Uzan River valley, it seems that the old roads in the study area were in accordance with the topographic conditions of the region and to a large extent coincided with or were close to the modern road.
Hamid Reza Valipour, Iman Mostafapour, Hamzeh Karimi,
year 9, Issue 34 (3-2026)
year 9, Issue 34 (3-2026)
Abstract
Abstract
The Upper Gotvand Dam, with a 90-kilometer-long lake, is one of the largest dams in the country, and its impoundment caused the flooding of a large number of ancient sites, ancient and modern migration routes, villages, and nomadic settlements in the northeastern region of Khuzestan. Before the dam was completed, a team of archaeologists surveyed its basin in 2007. After that, in 2008, a team of archaeologists from ICHTO of Khuzestan Province excavated the Kalantar site and the Kalantar cemetery, and then in April and May 2010, salvage excavations were carried out at Kalantar 4 & 5 sites to obtain as much information as possible, which yielded significant results. Following the excavation of the Kalantar 5 site, traces of residential stone architecture, plain buff and red pottery, and turquoise blue and green glazed pottery, as well as some ground stones such as grinding stones, mortars, and pounding stones, were found. According to typological comparisons on the potteries, it was determined that they belonged to the Middle Islamic period (fifth and sixth centuries AH), and the site was inhabited during the Seljuk period. In addition, it was determined that there is a great similarity between the stone architecture of the Kalantar 4 (a Neo-Elamite site), and the Kalantar 5, and with the local architecture of the region in the present time, both in villages and in nomadic settlements. In other words, the continuity of cultural traditions over several millennia is observed in this area.
Keywords: Kalantar 5, Gotvand Dam Basin, Middle Islamic Period, Stone Architecture, Islamic Glazed Pottery.
Introduction
The Upper Gotvand Dam was built on the Karun River near the small town of Gotvand to generate electricity and irrigate downstream agricultural lands, and a wide range of intermountain valleys, numerous ancient sites, ancient and modern migration routes, villages, and nomadic settlements were submerged in the 90-kilometer-long lake behind the dam. Before the dam was impounded, two teams led by Shahram Zare and Hossein Azizi Kharanghi, respectively, surveyed the area (Azizi Kharanghi et al., 2007). Salvage excavations were conducted by Hamidreza Valipour on two sites, Kalantar 4 and 5, which were found during the surveys in the spring of 2010 (Valipour, 2010a & b). The preliminary results of the excavation of Kalantar 5 will be presented here.
The first goal of the excavation, like all salvage excavations, was to access as much information as possible. Due to the proximity of Kalantar 5 to Kalantar 4 and the similarity of its surface architectural structure with the architecture of Kalantar 4, the excavation team was faced with some questions, the most important of which were: 1- Is Kalantar 5 an extension of the Kalantar 4 settlement and can we consider them as one site? 2- Was the settlement in Kalantar 5 established after the abandonment of Kalantar 4 and as a result of the displacement of its residents? 3- Does Kalantar 5 belong to a different time than Kalantar 4? Of course, given the presence of Islamic pottery on the surface of Kalantar 5, it was assumed that this area, in addition to the Elamite period, would also contain evidence of settlement from this period. 4- Function and type of settlement in Kalantar5.
Kalantar 5
Kalantar 5 is located on a natural hill south of Kalantar village (Ab Zālu Arab) in Lali County, at N: 32˚ 13΄ 42/6˝ latitude and E: 049˚ 04΄ 55/4˝ longitude, 160 meters north of Kalantar 4 and 13 kilometers east of the Gotvand Dam. The highest point of the site is 278 meters above sea level. The Karun River, the closest major water source to the site, flows 4.5 kilometers northeast of the site; a water stream also passes through the valley to the northwest.
During the excavation, one trench was opened at the highest part of the site, measuring 10×10 meters, where the regular stone pieces and traces of walls indicated the existence of architectural spaces in this part of the site. Given the depth of the natural bedrock, it was clear before the excavation began that not much height of the walls remained.
Architecture
A total of six architectural spaces were revealed during the excavation in Trench I. Stone and mud mortar were used in all the architectural structures. The stones used in the construction of the different parts of the complex are soft limestone in small to large sizes. All the stones lack cutting polish but have an almost regular shape. Many of the stones used in the architectural structures are cubed. The walls are rectangular. The walls lack any covering, and even during the excavation in the rubble layers, no samples of mud, plaster, or lime were found. The six aforementioned spaces seem to belong to the same building because they all share walls. It is possible that the natural bedrock of the hill was used as a floor for the spaces. Stone supports were used in addition to all the main and internal load-bearing walls. The entrances were mainly created by not connecting two walls or by cutting off part of the length of a wall. Next to some walls, there are smaller annexed spaces as storage places, which were probably used to store daily necessities or food or fuel, and they lacked any entrance and were accessed from above. A pyrotechnical structure was found inside one of the spaces, about one-fifth of which remains. Since a very small part of it remains, it is difficult to distinguish its function as an oven or else. No evidence of a roof or debris was found during the excavation. Given the relatively small width of the spaces and the absence of columns, the roofs of the spaces were most likely created using parallel wooden poles and covered with mats or tree branches and mud. This reconstruction was carried out in comparison with the current situation in the village adjacent to the site. The reason for this comparison is the great similarity of the architecture obtained from the settlement spaces of the site with the architecture of the adjacent village.
Pottery
The 319 potsherds recovered from the excavation are divided into two major groups: plain and glazed. 265 sherds (83%) of the total are unglazed. Unglazed pottery can be divided into two groups: buff and red. The technology of pottery production is completely similar in terms of form, manufacturing technique, inclusion, firing, and decoration. Most of the sherds are wheel-made (96%). The inner and outer surfaces of the pottery are unpolished, and both sides of the vessels are smoothed by the wet hand method. Rarely, red wash was used to cover a handful of buff wares. The texture of buff ware is much more cohesive than that of red ware. Mineral materials such as fine to coarse sand were used as an inclusion in unglazed pottery; in one of the red potteries, the inclusion is a combination of organic and mineral materials. In general, the quality of buff-colored pottery is better than that of reds, and the number of buff sherds is much greater than that of reds. 236 sherds (74% of all pottery and 89% of unglazed pottery) are buff, and 29 sherds (9% of all pottery and 11% of unglazed pottery) are red. There are 10 sherds of pottery with incised decoration in the unglazed buff group.
54 pieces (17%) of the pottery are glazed. Except for two pieces with green glaze, the rest are turquoise blue. The pottery of this group is in the category of pottery with monochromatic glaze. Five pieces are also of the sgraffiato type with turquoise blue glaze. In terms of form, manufacturing technique, inclusion, firing, and color, these sherds are completely similar to the unglazed buff wares. The inclusion of all samples is mineral.
The reconstructed forms are the jar (44.5%), bowl (37%), and bowl (18.5%), respectively. The sherds date back to the 5th and 6th centuries AH and are dated to the Seljuk period (Karimi & Kiani, 1985; Towhidi, 2000; Kambakhshfard, 2001; Grube, 1994; Treptow, 2007).
Other Cultural Materials
In addition to pottery, other cultural materials recovered included animal remains, pounding stones, stone mortars, pivots, iron nails, iron knife, the bottom, rim, and body of transparent or opaque glass vessels in blue, yellow, and milky colors, as well as a few broken shells.
Conclusion
Kalantar 5 is a rural settlement site from the Middle Islamic period because considering the landscape of the region, the location of the site, the extent of the architectural remains, and the dispersion of cultural materials, it is unlikely that the settlement was urban. There is no connection between the sites of Kalantar 4 and 5 from a cultural and temporal perspective. An interesting point to note is the similarity of the architectural structures of this site with the architecture of Kalantar 4 and the modern village of Ab Zālū Arab and other nomadic villages and settlements in the region. With an ethnoarchaeological approach, this similarity can be considered a kind of cultural continuity in architecture. Perhaps the same environmental and subsistence conditions can be considered the reason for the construction of similar architecture over a long period.
The buildings were constructed using completely local materials, such as stone and mud. All the stones are limestone, ranging in size from small to large, and are uncut and unpolished but have a fairly regular shape, and many of the stones have been broken using chisels and hammers. It seems that the six identified spaces had both roofed and open sections. The three spaces 1, 3, and 4 were associated with activities that required separation from the residential areas; the three spaces 2, 5, and 6, which are part of the main residential complex, were probably places for resting and performing other daily activities. These three spaces are connected by some entrances.
All finds, from functional examples such as pottery, glass vessels, pounding stones, and mortars to decorative shells, indicate a normal settlement, and all of them are related to daily life activities.
The pottery of the Kalantar 5 bears no resemblance to the Kalantar 4 site. Many of them are Islamic glazed pottery, including monochrome green and turquoise blue glazes and some with incised patterns under the turquoise blue glaze. The pottery is not very diverse in terms of color, glaze, type, and theme of the patterns. These potteries date back to the fifth and sixth centuries AH and are dated to the Seljuk period. During this period, the glass industry in Iran was very prosperous (Shishehgar, 2003: 24), and glass fragments recovered from a rural settlement site confirm this.
The Upper Gotvand Dam, with a 90-kilometer-long lake, is one of the largest dams in the country, and its impoundment caused the flooding of a large number of ancient sites, ancient and modern migration routes, villages, and nomadic settlements in the northeastern region of Khuzestan. Before the dam was completed, a team of archaeologists surveyed its basin in 2007. After that, in 2008, a team of archaeologists from ICHTO of Khuzestan Province excavated the Kalantar site and the Kalantar cemetery, and then in April and May 2010, salvage excavations were carried out at Kalantar 4 & 5 sites to obtain as much information as possible, which yielded significant results. Following the excavation of the Kalantar 5 site, traces of residential stone architecture, plain buff and red pottery, and turquoise blue and green glazed pottery, as well as some ground stones such as grinding stones, mortars, and pounding stones, were found. According to typological comparisons on the potteries, it was determined that they belonged to the Middle Islamic period (fifth and sixth centuries AH), and the site was inhabited during the Seljuk period. In addition, it was determined that there is a great similarity between the stone architecture of the Kalantar 4 (a Neo-Elamite site), and the Kalantar 5, and with the local architecture of the region in the present time, both in villages and in nomadic settlements. In other words, the continuity of cultural traditions over several millennia is observed in this area.
Keywords: Kalantar 5, Gotvand Dam Basin, Middle Islamic Period, Stone Architecture, Islamic Glazed Pottery.
Introduction
The Upper Gotvand Dam was built on the Karun River near the small town of Gotvand to generate electricity and irrigate downstream agricultural lands, and a wide range of intermountain valleys, numerous ancient sites, ancient and modern migration routes, villages, and nomadic settlements were submerged in the 90-kilometer-long lake behind the dam. Before the dam was impounded, two teams led by Shahram Zare and Hossein Azizi Kharanghi, respectively, surveyed the area (Azizi Kharanghi et al., 2007). Salvage excavations were conducted by Hamidreza Valipour on two sites, Kalantar 4 and 5, which were found during the surveys in the spring of 2010 (Valipour, 2010a & b). The preliminary results of the excavation of Kalantar 5 will be presented here.
The first goal of the excavation, like all salvage excavations, was to access as much information as possible. Due to the proximity of Kalantar 5 to Kalantar 4 and the similarity of its surface architectural structure with the architecture of Kalantar 4, the excavation team was faced with some questions, the most important of which were: 1- Is Kalantar 5 an extension of the Kalantar 4 settlement and can we consider them as one site? 2- Was the settlement in Kalantar 5 established after the abandonment of Kalantar 4 and as a result of the displacement of its residents? 3- Does Kalantar 5 belong to a different time than Kalantar 4? Of course, given the presence of Islamic pottery on the surface of Kalantar 5, it was assumed that this area, in addition to the Elamite period, would also contain evidence of settlement from this period. 4- Function and type of settlement in Kalantar5.
Kalantar 5
Kalantar 5 is located on a natural hill south of Kalantar village (Ab Zālu Arab) in Lali County, at N: 32˚ 13΄ 42/6˝ latitude and E: 049˚ 04΄ 55/4˝ longitude, 160 meters north of Kalantar 4 and 13 kilometers east of the Gotvand Dam. The highest point of the site is 278 meters above sea level. The Karun River, the closest major water source to the site, flows 4.5 kilometers northeast of the site; a water stream also passes through the valley to the northwest.
During the excavation, one trench was opened at the highest part of the site, measuring 10×10 meters, where the regular stone pieces and traces of walls indicated the existence of architectural spaces in this part of the site. Given the depth of the natural bedrock, it was clear before the excavation began that not much height of the walls remained.
Architecture
A total of six architectural spaces were revealed during the excavation in Trench I. Stone and mud mortar were used in all the architectural structures. The stones used in the construction of the different parts of the complex are soft limestone in small to large sizes. All the stones lack cutting polish but have an almost regular shape. Many of the stones used in the architectural structures are cubed. The walls are rectangular. The walls lack any covering, and even during the excavation in the rubble layers, no samples of mud, plaster, or lime were found. The six aforementioned spaces seem to belong to the same building because they all share walls. It is possible that the natural bedrock of the hill was used as a floor for the spaces. Stone supports were used in addition to all the main and internal load-bearing walls. The entrances were mainly created by not connecting two walls or by cutting off part of the length of a wall. Next to some walls, there are smaller annexed spaces as storage places, which were probably used to store daily necessities or food or fuel, and they lacked any entrance and were accessed from above. A pyrotechnical structure was found inside one of the spaces, about one-fifth of which remains. Since a very small part of it remains, it is difficult to distinguish its function as an oven or else. No evidence of a roof or debris was found during the excavation. Given the relatively small width of the spaces and the absence of columns, the roofs of the spaces were most likely created using parallel wooden poles and covered with mats or tree branches and mud. This reconstruction was carried out in comparison with the current situation in the village adjacent to the site. The reason for this comparison is the great similarity of the architecture obtained from the settlement spaces of the site with the architecture of the adjacent village.
Pottery
The 319 potsherds recovered from the excavation are divided into two major groups: plain and glazed. 265 sherds (83%) of the total are unglazed. Unglazed pottery can be divided into two groups: buff and red. The technology of pottery production is completely similar in terms of form, manufacturing technique, inclusion, firing, and decoration. Most of the sherds are wheel-made (96%). The inner and outer surfaces of the pottery are unpolished, and both sides of the vessels are smoothed by the wet hand method. Rarely, red wash was used to cover a handful of buff wares. The texture of buff ware is much more cohesive than that of red ware. Mineral materials such as fine to coarse sand were used as an inclusion in unglazed pottery; in one of the red potteries, the inclusion is a combination of organic and mineral materials. In general, the quality of buff-colored pottery is better than that of reds, and the number of buff sherds is much greater than that of reds. 236 sherds (74% of all pottery and 89% of unglazed pottery) are buff, and 29 sherds (9% of all pottery and 11% of unglazed pottery) are red. There are 10 sherds of pottery with incised decoration in the unglazed buff group.
54 pieces (17%) of the pottery are glazed. Except for two pieces with green glaze, the rest are turquoise blue. The pottery of this group is in the category of pottery with monochromatic glaze. Five pieces are also of the sgraffiato type with turquoise blue glaze. In terms of form, manufacturing technique, inclusion, firing, and color, these sherds are completely similar to the unglazed buff wares. The inclusion of all samples is mineral.
The reconstructed forms are the jar (44.5%), bowl (37%), and bowl (18.5%), respectively. The sherds date back to the 5th and 6th centuries AH and are dated to the Seljuk period (Karimi & Kiani, 1985; Towhidi, 2000; Kambakhshfard, 2001; Grube, 1994; Treptow, 2007).
Other Cultural Materials
In addition to pottery, other cultural materials recovered included animal remains, pounding stones, stone mortars, pivots, iron nails, iron knife, the bottom, rim, and body of transparent or opaque glass vessels in blue, yellow, and milky colors, as well as a few broken shells.
Conclusion
Kalantar 5 is a rural settlement site from the Middle Islamic period because considering the landscape of the region, the location of the site, the extent of the architectural remains, and the dispersion of cultural materials, it is unlikely that the settlement was urban. There is no connection between the sites of Kalantar 4 and 5 from a cultural and temporal perspective. An interesting point to note is the similarity of the architectural structures of this site with the architecture of Kalantar 4 and the modern village of Ab Zālū Arab and other nomadic villages and settlements in the region. With an ethnoarchaeological approach, this similarity can be considered a kind of cultural continuity in architecture. Perhaps the same environmental and subsistence conditions can be considered the reason for the construction of similar architecture over a long period.
The buildings were constructed using completely local materials, such as stone and mud. All the stones are limestone, ranging in size from small to large, and are uncut and unpolished but have a fairly regular shape, and many of the stones have been broken using chisels and hammers. It seems that the six identified spaces had both roofed and open sections. The three spaces 1, 3, and 4 were associated with activities that required separation from the residential areas; the three spaces 2, 5, and 6, which are part of the main residential complex, were probably places for resting and performing other daily activities. These three spaces are connected by some entrances.
All finds, from functional examples such as pottery, glass vessels, pounding stones, and mortars to decorative shells, indicate a normal settlement, and all of them are related to daily life activities.
The pottery of the Kalantar 5 bears no resemblance to the Kalantar 4 site. Many of them are Islamic glazed pottery, including monochrome green and turquoise blue glazes and some with incised patterns under the turquoise blue glaze. The pottery is not very diverse in terms of color, glaze, type, and theme of the patterns. These potteries date back to the fifth and sixth centuries AH and are dated to the Seljuk period. During this period, the glass industry in Iran was very prosperous (Shishehgar, 2003: 24), and glass fragments recovered from a rural settlement site confirm this.
Mozhgan Esmaili,
year 9, Issue 34 (3-2026)
year 9, Issue 34 (3-2026)
Abstract
Abstract
India, with its very cultural and religious diversity, underwent changes and transformations with the domination of the Mamluk government. The minaret as one of the elements of Islamic architecture, apart from playing the role of the minaret, was a symbol of Islamic rule. The minaret is a lasting symbol of the rich history of India, architectural skills and cultural exchange. The purpose of this research is the analysis of decorative elements and re-reading the inscriptions of “Minaret Qutub”, by answering these questions, what effect did the decorative elements of Islamic architecture have on this building? And what are the themes of the inscriptions? The research method of this research is based on library studies, study of first-hand sources, field studies and objective observations of the author and has been done by describing, analyzing and using historical sources. The results of this study show that the minaret is decorated under the influence of aesthetics and elements of Islamic architecture, and the decorative elements of the Qutub minaret are a combination of Islamic and Indian elements. Although the minaret follows the general form of Islamic minarets, it contains elements of Indian architecture such as precise and complex carvings, the use of sand, red stone and marble, the use of lotus flowers and bell-shaped decorations, various inscriptions, geometric and plant motifs that It reflects the combined nature of Indian and Islamic architecture, and the title “Indo-Islamic” architecture can be used for the art of the Mamluk period.
Keywords: Decorative Elements, Inscriptions, Islamic Architecture, Indian Architecture, Mamluk, Qutub Minaret.
Introduction
The Qutub in Delhi is a notable example of Islamic architecture, but it also incorporates elements of Indian design. The use of intricate stone carving techniques, geometric patterns, and calligraphic inscriptions is prominent in this period. This assimilation of diverse influences and the development of a unique artistic style continued to flourish in the following centuries.
In 588 AH, Mu’izzuddin Muhammad Ghori succeeded in capturing the city of Delhi and, while there was no heir to Muhammad Ghori, appointed Qutbuddin Aybak as the successor to the Ghorid government there. He established the Mamluk rule in Delhi and established the first Islamic state called the “Delhi Sultanate”. The Mamluk sultans, who were originally from Central Asia and Iran, brought with them a rich architectural tradition that combined elements of Iranian, Islamic and Indian styles. This fusion led to the development of unique architectural features such as the use of arches, domes, minarets and intricate decorative motifs.
The Qutub Minaret in Delhi is a notable example of Islamic architecture but also incorporates elements of Indian design. The use of intricate stone carving techniques, geometric patterns and calligraphic inscriptions were prominent during this period.
The purpose of this research is to analyze the decorative elements and reinterpret the inscriptions of the “Minaret of Qutub”, in order to answer the questions, what effects did the decorative elements of Islamic architectural art have on this building? And what topics do the themes of the inscriptions express?
This research seeks to understand the themes of the inscriptions by rereading the inscriptions, the inscriptions of this building have been objectively observed and rewritten, while explaining the concepts of symbols and decorative elements, it aims to clarify the effects of Islamic art on the aforementioned building.
Discussion
The Qutub Minar is the tallest brick building in the world with a height of 72.5 meters and a diameter of about 14 at the base and about 3 meters at the highest balcony. The Qutub Minar has five floors and a spiral staircase with 379 steps. The entrance to the minaret is through a door facing north. Between each floor, a circular porch surrounds the building. This porch plays an effective role in maintaining and supporting the weight of the upper floors. Materials such as red and light brown sandstone and gray quartzite were used in the construction of this building, and its two rows are made of white marble.. Indo-Islamic structures often incorporate elements inspired by Hindu and Jain temple architecture. This approach results in a unique combination of forms, motifs and techniques.
Geometric shapes in Islamic architecture often represent the concept of unity, harmony, and precise mathematical proportions and symmetrical arrangements of patterns, the idea of balance and order in the universe, and reflect the belief in the harmonious interaction of various elements in creation.The repetition of geometric shapes with no discernible beginning or end was seen as indicative of the infinite and eternal nature of God.
The Qutub Minaret features intricate carvings, geometric patterns, and ornamental designs that are indicative of the art of its time. Its five floors are separated by carved balconies and fluted columns with Muqarnas decorations. The decorative elements used in Mamluk architecture reflect the sophisticated artistry, aesthetic appeal, and symbolic meanings associated with Islamic art and architecture. They represent a combination of mathematical precision, decorative beauty, and spiritual symbolism. The repetition of geometric shapes without a discernible beginning or end indicated the boundless and eternal nature of God.
Geometric shapes in Islamic architecture often represent the concept of unity, harmony, and precise mathematical proportions and symmetrical arrangements of patterns, the idea of balance and order in the universe, and reflect the belief in the harmonious interaction of various elements in creation.
The inscriptions on the minaret provide valuable historical information about its construction. On each floor, there are two relief inscriptions containing the names of rulers and sultans. The inscriptions on the Qutub Minaret include verses from the Holy Quran, the names and titles of rulers associated with the building, and historical information about its construction.
These inscriptions are skillfully and beautifully executed in calligraphy.
Various styles of Arabic calligraphy such as Kufic, Naskh and Thuluth can be seen on the minaret.
Conclusion
The influence of Islamic culture and civilization in the 6th century AH with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate had a profound impact on the Indian subcontinent. This state, which was the beginning of Muslim rule in India, served as a political and cultural center for the spread of Islamic civilization. The influence of Islamic culture and civilization in India can be seen in various fields, and Islamic architecture in India in particular flourished from the period of the Delhi Sultanates.The architectural elements, decorations, symbols and signs common to Islamic architecture were incorporated into almost all the buildings of the Delhi Sultanate period and later became a common practice in Indian architecture. Several architectural innovations were introduced during the Delhi Sultanate period. These innovations included the construction of minarets, the use of complex stone carving techniques, geometric designs and calligraphic inscriptions, which were prominent during this period.The inscriptions on the building, which are mainly in Arabic, contain verses from the Holy Quran as well as information about the construction of the building. The oldest inscription at the base of the Qutub Minar is attributed to Qutubuddin Aibak, the founder of the Delhi Sultanate. As you ascend the minaret, the text of the inscriptions reflects later additions and renovations made by the rulers of subsequent periods.The inscriptions also display linguistic diversity, with the diversity of Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Hindi languages reflecting the multicultural nature of the Delhi Sultanate. This building is also noteworthy in terms of calligraphy styles and technical techniques of carving and decorative elements and layout, while the symbols and motifs of each one convey a specific meaning to the viewer.Another prominent feature of Indian and Islamic architecture is the use of red sandstone and marble. The use of red sandstone along with decorative elements made of marble creates a significant contrast and adds to the attractiveness of the structures.
The creation and attractiveness of the structures has added to the charm.Indian decorative motifs are often inspired by nature and the local environment. By incorporating these motifs, Indo-Islamic architecture was able to adapt itself to the local context. During the period of the Delhi Sultans, the fusion of Islamic and Indian culture led to Indo-Islamic art, which was characterized by the fusion of Persian, Turkish and Arabic elements with indigenous Indian traditions, resulting in a unique architectural style. The intricate carvings on the minaret, including lotus flower motifs and bell-shaped motifs, indicate a cultural fusion that occurred during the Delhi Sultans and highlighted the inclusive nature of Islamic art.
India, with its very cultural and religious diversity, underwent changes and transformations with the domination of the Mamluk government. The minaret as one of the elements of Islamic architecture, apart from playing the role of the minaret, was a symbol of Islamic rule. The minaret is a lasting symbol of the rich history of India, architectural skills and cultural exchange. The purpose of this research is the analysis of decorative elements and re-reading the inscriptions of “Minaret Qutub”, by answering these questions, what effect did the decorative elements of Islamic architecture have on this building? And what are the themes of the inscriptions? The research method of this research is based on library studies, study of first-hand sources, field studies and objective observations of the author and has been done by describing, analyzing and using historical sources. The results of this study show that the minaret is decorated under the influence of aesthetics and elements of Islamic architecture, and the decorative elements of the Qutub minaret are a combination of Islamic and Indian elements. Although the minaret follows the general form of Islamic minarets, it contains elements of Indian architecture such as precise and complex carvings, the use of sand, red stone and marble, the use of lotus flowers and bell-shaped decorations, various inscriptions, geometric and plant motifs that It reflects the combined nature of Indian and Islamic architecture, and the title “Indo-Islamic” architecture can be used for the art of the Mamluk period.
Keywords: Decorative Elements, Inscriptions, Islamic Architecture, Indian Architecture, Mamluk, Qutub Minaret.
Introduction
The Qutub in Delhi is a notable example of Islamic architecture, but it also incorporates elements of Indian design. The use of intricate stone carving techniques, geometric patterns, and calligraphic inscriptions is prominent in this period. This assimilation of diverse influences and the development of a unique artistic style continued to flourish in the following centuries.
In 588 AH, Mu’izzuddin Muhammad Ghori succeeded in capturing the city of Delhi and, while there was no heir to Muhammad Ghori, appointed Qutbuddin Aybak as the successor to the Ghorid government there. He established the Mamluk rule in Delhi and established the first Islamic state called the “Delhi Sultanate”. The Mamluk sultans, who were originally from Central Asia and Iran, brought with them a rich architectural tradition that combined elements of Iranian, Islamic and Indian styles. This fusion led to the development of unique architectural features such as the use of arches, domes, minarets and intricate decorative motifs.
The Qutub Minaret in Delhi is a notable example of Islamic architecture but also incorporates elements of Indian design. The use of intricate stone carving techniques, geometric patterns and calligraphic inscriptions were prominent during this period.
The purpose of this research is to analyze the decorative elements and reinterpret the inscriptions of the “Minaret of Qutub”, in order to answer the questions, what effects did the decorative elements of Islamic architectural art have on this building? And what topics do the themes of the inscriptions express?
This research seeks to understand the themes of the inscriptions by rereading the inscriptions, the inscriptions of this building have been objectively observed and rewritten, while explaining the concepts of symbols and decorative elements, it aims to clarify the effects of Islamic art on the aforementioned building.
Discussion
The Qutub Minar is the tallest brick building in the world with a height of 72.5 meters and a diameter of about 14 at the base and about 3 meters at the highest balcony. The Qutub Minar has five floors and a spiral staircase with 379 steps. The entrance to the minaret is through a door facing north. Between each floor, a circular porch surrounds the building. This porch plays an effective role in maintaining and supporting the weight of the upper floors. Materials such as red and light brown sandstone and gray quartzite were used in the construction of this building, and its two rows are made of white marble.. Indo-Islamic structures often incorporate elements inspired by Hindu and Jain temple architecture. This approach results in a unique combination of forms, motifs and techniques.
Geometric shapes in Islamic architecture often represent the concept of unity, harmony, and precise mathematical proportions and symmetrical arrangements of patterns, the idea of balance and order in the universe, and reflect the belief in the harmonious interaction of various elements in creation.The repetition of geometric shapes with no discernible beginning or end was seen as indicative of the infinite and eternal nature of God.
The Qutub Minaret features intricate carvings, geometric patterns, and ornamental designs that are indicative of the art of its time. Its five floors are separated by carved balconies and fluted columns with Muqarnas decorations. The decorative elements used in Mamluk architecture reflect the sophisticated artistry, aesthetic appeal, and symbolic meanings associated with Islamic art and architecture. They represent a combination of mathematical precision, decorative beauty, and spiritual symbolism. The repetition of geometric shapes without a discernible beginning or end indicated the boundless and eternal nature of God.
Geometric shapes in Islamic architecture often represent the concept of unity, harmony, and precise mathematical proportions and symmetrical arrangements of patterns, the idea of balance and order in the universe, and reflect the belief in the harmonious interaction of various elements in creation.
The inscriptions on the minaret provide valuable historical information about its construction. On each floor, there are two relief inscriptions containing the names of rulers and sultans. The inscriptions on the Qutub Minaret include verses from the Holy Quran, the names and titles of rulers associated with the building, and historical information about its construction.
These inscriptions are skillfully and beautifully executed in calligraphy.
Various styles of Arabic calligraphy such as Kufic, Naskh and Thuluth can be seen on the minaret.
Conclusion
The influence of Islamic culture and civilization in the 6th century AH with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate had a profound impact on the Indian subcontinent. This state, which was the beginning of Muslim rule in India, served as a political and cultural center for the spread of Islamic civilization. The influence of Islamic culture and civilization in India can be seen in various fields, and Islamic architecture in India in particular flourished from the period of the Delhi Sultanates.The architectural elements, decorations, symbols and signs common to Islamic architecture were incorporated into almost all the buildings of the Delhi Sultanate period and later became a common practice in Indian architecture. Several architectural innovations were introduced during the Delhi Sultanate period. These innovations included the construction of minarets, the use of complex stone carving techniques, geometric designs and calligraphic inscriptions, which were prominent during this period.The inscriptions on the building, which are mainly in Arabic, contain verses from the Holy Quran as well as information about the construction of the building. The oldest inscription at the base of the Qutub Minar is attributed to Qutubuddin Aibak, the founder of the Delhi Sultanate. As you ascend the minaret, the text of the inscriptions reflects later additions and renovations made by the rulers of subsequent periods.The inscriptions also display linguistic diversity, with the diversity of Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Hindi languages reflecting the multicultural nature of the Delhi Sultanate. This building is also noteworthy in terms of calligraphy styles and technical techniques of carving and decorative elements and layout, while the symbols and motifs of each one convey a specific meaning to the viewer.Another prominent feature of Indian and Islamic architecture is the use of red sandstone and marble. The use of red sandstone along with decorative elements made of marble creates a significant contrast and adds to the attractiveness of the structures.
The creation and attractiveness of the structures has added to the charm.Indian decorative motifs are often inspired by nature and the local environment. By incorporating these motifs, Indo-Islamic architecture was able to adapt itself to the local context. During the period of the Delhi Sultans, the fusion of Islamic and Indian culture led to Indo-Islamic art, which was characterized by the fusion of Persian, Turkish and Arabic elements with indigenous Indian traditions, resulting in a unique architectural style. The intricate carvings on the minaret, including lotus flower motifs and bell-shaped motifs, indicate a cultural fusion that occurred during the Delhi Sultans and highlighted the inclusive nature of Islamic art.
Hani Zarei, Shahriar Nasekhian, Mohammad Hasan Talebian,
year 9, Issue 34 (3-2026)
year 9, Issue 34 (3-2026)
Abstract
Abstract
Khuzestan, a primary center of mudbrick and fired-brick architecture in ancient Iran, witnessed the evolution of vaulted construction from the Elamite to the Late Sasanian periods. Among these, arched vaults served not only as structural elements but also as a demonstration of systematic engineering practices tailored to the region’s warm and semi-humid climate. Despite the abundance of surviving monuments, no comprehensive study has analyzed their technical and structural features to uncover the underlying stability principles. This study aims to examine the structural performance and recurring patterns of stability in arched vaults of Khuzestan. Field surveys, documentation of accessible structures, analysis of 111 identified vaulted buildings, and detailed examination of 21 selected representative examples were conducted. The study focused on the interaction of materials, geometric proportions, construction technology, and human craftsmanship in achieving long-term stability. Results indicate that vault stability depended on: 1) the type and geometry of bricks, consistent mortar thickness, and interlocking strategies; 2) diverse construction techniques, including corbeling, radial arrangements, and combination methods; 3) geometric proportions such as span, rise, and vault thickness; 4) adaptation to climatic conditions; and 5) the skill and experience of the builders. This research highlights the presence of a systematic engineering logic in pre-Islamic vault construction and provides a framework for restoration, conservation, and potential adaptation in contemporary architectural practice. The findings demonstrate that these vaults were not merely empirical or accidental in design but reflect deliberate, replicable, and coherent structural strategies.
Keywords: Structural Stability, Vaulted Architecture, Arched Vaults, Pre-Islamic Iran, Khuzestan.
Introduction
Khuzestan has historically played a pivotal role in the development of vaulted architecture within ancient Iranian civilizations. Vaults represent one of the most sophisticated elements of traditional construction, combining technical mastery, material understanding, and adaptation to environmental conditions. From the Elamite through Late Sasanian periods, vaulted buildings in Khuzestan reveal an evolution in construction techniques, reflecting the accumulation of knowledge and local innovation. Arched vaults, in particular, served as primary structural and functional components in ritual, funerary, administrative, and sometimes military architecture.
The study of these vaults provides insight into the strategies employed by ancient builders to achieve stability over centuries. Stability in traditional architecture encompasses not only physical durability but also cultural, climatic, and technical resilience. Builders utilized local materials, precise geometric proportions, and structured load distribution to respond to environmental and functional challenges. Despite extensive archaeological documentation, there has been limited focus on the technical principles underpinning vault stability, particularly in arched vaults.
This research addresses this gap by systematically analyzing recurring structural features, material properties, construction technology, and geometric patterns that contributed to vault durability. The study examines both historical continuity and the adaptation of techniques over time, demonstrating that pre-Islamic vaulting practices in Khuzestan were informed by deliberate engineering logic rather than trial-and-error. Understanding these principles is critical for bridging knowledge gaps in architectural conservation, informing restoration efforts, and inspiring contemporary applications of traditional construction methods.
Discussion
Analysis of arched vaults in Khuzestan indicates that their long-term stability resulted from a combination of material selection, construction technology, geometric design, and human skill. Key aspects include:
Materials and Mortar: Builders employed trapezoidal, square, and rectangular bricks, wider and thicker at structural bases to distribute loads effectively. Mortars, including clay, gypsum, and bitumen, were chosen according to moisture conditions, ensuring cohesion and stability.
Construction Techniques: Techniques included inclined corbeling, radial arrangements, and hybrid approaches. Temporary wooden or reed supports facilitated precise execution, while multi-layer vaults with controlled thickness enhanced overall strength. Adjacent vaults were often coordinated to reduce lateral stresses.
Geometric Proportions: Ratios between span, rise, and thickness were carefully maintained across periods. Numerical proportional systems guided vault dimensions, while precise interlocking of bricks ensured efficient load transfer.
Human Skill: Mastery in aligning bricks, controlling mortar thickness, integrating vaults with walls, and designing stress-relief features such as recesses and buttresses reflected high craftsmanship.
The historical evolution from Elamite to Sasanian periods shows gradual refinement. Early Elamite vaults utilized simple rectangular cross-sections and limited brick types, while Late Sasanian vaults displayed sophisticated high-rise arches, modular brick use, and multi-layer arrangements. These developments indicate a cumulative knowledge system that informed construction practices and responded to functional and climatic challenges.
The study highlights that stability was never accidental; rather, it emerged from repeated, rationalized engineering practices. Such findings provide an empirical basis for restoration and reconstruction, enabling the preservation of architectural integrity and informing contemporary design strategies that draw upon historical methods.
Conclusion
This research demonstrates that arched vaults in Khuzestan were underpinned by systematic engineering principles rather than empirical trial-and-error. Stability resulted from the integrated interaction of materials, construction technology, geometric design, environmental adaptation, and craftsmanship. The study identifies:
- Strategic use of brick types and mortar selection to optimize structural cohesion.
- Refined construction techniques, including corbeling, radial arrangements, multi-layer vaulting, and controlled thickness.
- Geometric proportionality ensuring balanced distribution of forces.
- Adaptation to climate and environmental constraints.
- High-level craftsmanship in aligning elements and controlling structural behavior.
Historical analysis reveals a continuous technological development, culminating in Late Sasanian vaults that exemplify peak structural refinement. Documenting these features provides a foundation for preservation, restoration, and potential adaptation in modern architectural practice. Future studies may compare these vaults with contemporary structures in neighboring regions or explore the influence on early Islamic architecture in southwestern Iran.
The study confirms that pre-Islamic vault construction in Khuzestan represents a coherent, replicable, and sophisticated engineering tradition, offering valuable lessons for both conservation and contemporary design.
Khuzestan, a primary center of mudbrick and fired-brick architecture in ancient Iran, witnessed the evolution of vaulted construction from the Elamite to the Late Sasanian periods. Among these, arched vaults served not only as structural elements but also as a demonstration of systematic engineering practices tailored to the region’s warm and semi-humid climate. Despite the abundance of surviving monuments, no comprehensive study has analyzed their technical and structural features to uncover the underlying stability principles. This study aims to examine the structural performance and recurring patterns of stability in arched vaults of Khuzestan. Field surveys, documentation of accessible structures, analysis of 111 identified vaulted buildings, and detailed examination of 21 selected representative examples were conducted. The study focused on the interaction of materials, geometric proportions, construction technology, and human craftsmanship in achieving long-term stability. Results indicate that vault stability depended on: 1) the type and geometry of bricks, consistent mortar thickness, and interlocking strategies; 2) diverse construction techniques, including corbeling, radial arrangements, and combination methods; 3) geometric proportions such as span, rise, and vault thickness; 4) adaptation to climatic conditions; and 5) the skill and experience of the builders. This research highlights the presence of a systematic engineering logic in pre-Islamic vault construction and provides a framework for restoration, conservation, and potential adaptation in contemporary architectural practice. The findings demonstrate that these vaults were not merely empirical or accidental in design but reflect deliberate, replicable, and coherent structural strategies.
Keywords: Structural Stability, Vaulted Architecture, Arched Vaults, Pre-Islamic Iran, Khuzestan.
Introduction
Khuzestan has historically played a pivotal role in the development of vaulted architecture within ancient Iranian civilizations. Vaults represent one of the most sophisticated elements of traditional construction, combining technical mastery, material understanding, and adaptation to environmental conditions. From the Elamite through Late Sasanian periods, vaulted buildings in Khuzestan reveal an evolution in construction techniques, reflecting the accumulation of knowledge and local innovation. Arched vaults, in particular, served as primary structural and functional components in ritual, funerary, administrative, and sometimes military architecture.
The study of these vaults provides insight into the strategies employed by ancient builders to achieve stability over centuries. Stability in traditional architecture encompasses not only physical durability but also cultural, climatic, and technical resilience. Builders utilized local materials, precise geometric proportions, and structured load distribution to respond to environmental and functional challenges. Despite extensive archaeological documentation, there has been limited focus on the technical principles underpinning vault stability, particularly in arched vaults.
This research addresses this gap by systematically analyzing recurring structural features, material properties, construction technology, and geometric patterns that contributed to vault durability. The study examines both historical continuity and the adaptation of techniques over time, demonstrating that pre-Islamic vaulting practices in Khuzestan were informed by deliberate engineering logic rather than trial-and-error. Understanding these principles is critical for bridging knowledge gaps in architectural conservation, informing restoration efforts, and inspiring contemporary applications of traditional construction methods.
Discussion
Analysis of arched vaults in Khuzestan indicates that their long-term stability resulted from a combination of material selection, construction technology, geometric design, and human skill. Key aspects include:
Materials and Mortar: Builders employed trapezoidal, square, and rectangular bricks, wider and thicker at structural bases to distribute loads effectively. Mortars, including clay, gypsum, and bitumen, were chosen according to moisture conditions, ensuring cohesion and stability.
Construction Techniques: Techniques included inclined corbeling, radial arrangements, and hybrid approaches. Temporary wooden or reed supports facilitated precise execution, while multi-layer vaults with controlled thickness enhanced overall strength. Adjacent vaults were often coordinated to reduce lateral stresses.
Geometric Proportions: Ratios between span, rise, and thickness were carefully maintained across periods. Numerical proportional systems guided vault dimensions, while precise interlocking of bricks ensured efficient load transfer.
Human Skill: Mastery in aligning bricks, controlling mortar thickness, integrating vaults with walls, and designing stress-relief features such as recesses and buttresses reflected high craftsmanship.
The historical evolution from Elamite to Sasanian periods shows gradual refinement. Early Elamite vaults utilized simple rectangular cross-sections and limited brick types, while Late Sasanian vaults displayed sophisticated high-rise arches, modular brick use, and multi-layer arrangements. These developments indicate a cumulative knowledge system that informed construction practices and responded to functional and climatic challenges.
The study highlights that stability was never accidental; rather, it emerged from repeated, rationalized engineering practices. Such findings provide an empirical basis for restoration and reconstruction, enabling the preservation of architectural integrity and informing contemporary design strategies that draw upon historical methods.
Conclusion
This research demonstrates that arched vaults in Khuzestan were underpinned by systematic engineering principles rather than empirical trial-and-error. Stability resulted from the integrated interaction of materials, construction technology, geometric design, environmental adaptation, and craftsmanship. The study identifies:
- Strategic use of brick types and mortar selection to optimize structural cohesion.
- Refined construction techniques, including corbeling, radial arrangements, multi-layer vaulting, and controlled thickness.
- Geometric proportionality ensuring balanced distribution of forces.
- Adaptation to climate and environmental constraints.
- High-level craftsmanship in aligning elements and controlling structural behavior.
Historical analysis reveals a continuous technological development, culminating in Late Sasanian vaults that exemplify peak structural refinement. Documenting these features provides a foundation for preservation, restoration, and potential adaptation in modern architectural practice. Future studies may compare these vaults with contemporary structures in neighboring regions or explore the influence on early Islamic architecture in southwestern Iran.
The study confirms that pre-Islamic vault construction in Khuzestan represents a coherent, replicable, and sophisticated engineering tradition, offering valuable lessons for both conservation and contemporary design.
Arash Lashkari,
year 10, Issue 35 (6-2026)
year 10, Issue 35 (6-2026)
Abstract
The archaeological excavation of the Zich site formed part of the salvage archaeology program conducted in the reservoir area of the Kangir Dam, located in the Zarneh district of Iwan County, in the northwestern part of Ilam Province. The results of this investigation, based on the systematic survey of nine 100×100 m grid units, the excavation of eight test trenches measuring between 2×2 m and 3×3 m, and the excavation of four trenches ranging in size from 5×5 m to 10×10 m, ultimately led to the identification of a temporary settlement, or nomadic campsite. The study of the architectural remains and surviving architectural features exposed in the excavation trenches, together with their comparative analysis against contemporary regional examples, indicates that Zich was a single-phase, short-term temporary settlement used by mobile pastoralist groups. The settlement pattern at the site appears to have consisted of tents, each enclosed by one- or two-course dry-stone walls and separated from one another by the same one- or two-row stone alignments. Comparative analysis of the ceramics and other materials recovered from all four excavation trenches dates the occupation of the site to the early Islamic centuries, specifically the 2nd to 3rd centuries AH. Zich appears to have developed because of several favorable locational factors; its suitable topographic setting, proximity to a perennial spring and the Kangir River, nearness to the Guriyeh structure, the presence of dense pastureland, and its position along one of the old tribal routes running parallel to the Kangir River, which connected the Kermanshah region to the warmer areas south of Iwan County. The study of the structures and built remains of present-day nomadic communities constitutes one of the most effective and precise scientific approaches for achieving a better understanding of the architectural organization of ancient mobile pastoralist societies, and it falls within the scope of ethnoarchaeological research. On the basis of the settlement practices of a contemporary tribal community, the present study examines the settlement pattern of a nomadic campsite within its local landscape. The data were collected through field survey and excavation, following the conventional methods of archaeological and ethnoarchaeological research carried out in the region.