Abstract
The Kurgan and the megalith tombs were common graves in the Bronze and Iron Ages. The vast geographical area is central Europe, central Asia, Anatolia, and Northwest Iran. The size of Kurgans and the objects discovered from these graves represented the deceased’s social status. Animal burial was also common in the late second millennium BC in the Caucasus, Eastern Anatolia, and Northwest Iran. This study explains the Kurgans, megalith tombs, and the traditional victim animals for particular social classes in the Bronze Age. One of the questions in this research is about trade relations between the South Caucasus and Northwest Iran in the Bronze Age. And why the Kurgans of this period in size and number of objects discovered inside graves differ. In answer to these questions, the represented research hypothesis found the Obsidian bows and Urmia ware of the Bronze Age in northwestern Iran. In this period, close relations existed between the South Caucasus and the Northwest of Iran. Also, the large size of the Kurgans and the objects discovered inside these graves represented the deceased’s social status. Ordinary people had a simple coffin grave, and their graves had no funeral gifts. But the high-ranking people in this community have huge graves and, along with the owner, discovered a lot of funeral gifts.  The Kurgans of the South Caucasus and Northwest of Iran were studied using observation and library surveys. The results show that the Kurgans discovered in the South Caucasus are older than those in the Northwest of Iran, and in the Late Bronze Age, there was a cultural and commercial connection between the two regions. In the Late Bronze Age, most Kurgans were discovered in the Aslandooz and Pars Abad in Ardabil, Ahar, and Khodaafarin in Eastern Azerbaijan. Most of them had a circular shape, and many of these graves found animals deceased, such as cows, horses, and dogs, with funeral gifts.  
Keywords: Bronze Age, Kurgan, Megalith Tombs, South Caucasus.

Introduction
According to archaeological findings in the Bronze Age, due to migrations and close relations, various developments happened between the Caucasus and northwestern Iran, especially in the burial tradition in the Bronze Age sites of Northwestern Iran. The Kurgans were formed from the late Chalcolithic Age to the Iron Age in a wide geographical area, including the Southern Caucasus, Eastern Anatolia, and Northwestern Iran. However, most Kurgans are chronologically related to the Bronze Age and Iron Ages. These tombs were by people who lived in semi-permanent settlements in the geographical area of steppe plains, extensive pastures, grasslands, and forests.
Animal burials are the essential issues in these Kurgans. According to studies on Kurgans from the Southern Caucasus and Northwestern Iran, animal burials, including horses, cows, and dogs, have been found in most large-sized Kurgans (Rudenko, 1953: 53-60). The graves in which animal burials show that the owner of these graves had a high social position. 
The lack of knowledge in this study is limited to the Kurgans of the Bronze Age in northwestern Iran. For this reason, one of the innovations in this study is a careful study of Bronze Age Kurgans in Northwestern Iran, especially the late Bronze. This research investigates the Kurgans discovered in the South Caucasus and Northwest Iran during the Bronze Age using objective observation and library studies. Most of the research done in the late Bronze Age Kurgans of Iran is based on field surveys and documenting and collecting the necessary information. 

The Kurgans of the Southern Caucasus region
The oldest Kurgans are in Asia Minor, the Balkan, and the Caucasus. These Kurgans are related to the fourth and third millennium BC. The oldest Kurgan belongs to the fourth millennium BC in the Caucasus region. The Scythians learned this burial method from the native inhabitant, and in combination with their belief, they gave it a shape that is today known as Tomolus (Firouzmandi, 2015: 157). There are two types of tombs: simple tombs that belonged to ordinary people and luxurious tombs that belonged to princes and kings. These Kurgans contained wooden structures and, with great skill, were made, which included pottery, war tools, and ornaments (Gershevitch, 1993: 189). Several Kurgans belong to the Kura-Aras culture in the Shanghvit area and other parts of Armenia in the Southern Caucasus. These Kurgans belong to the Early Bronze Age to the Middle Bronze Age. These Kurgans are very large and similar to those found in Armenia and Georgia. Objects such as pottery, gold, and other things have been found inside these Kurgans.

The Kurgans of Northwestern Iran
Khorramabad cemetery in Ardabil is one of the ancient sites of Northwestern Iran. Kurgans and large stone tombs have been discovered at this site. This cemetery belongs to the Late Bronze and Iron Ages. In another of these graves, which is unique, the remains of 34 horses have been found. The main Kurgan has found various types of Gold, Bronze, Iron, Stone, Glass objects, and pottery.
The Zardkhaneh site of Ahar, which belonged to the Late Bronze Age, is one of the essential sites in Northwestern Iran. From this site, there are 95 Kurgans and large stone graves. These graves are like the Kurgans and large stone graves of Azerbaijan, Armenia, and Turkey. These tombs have many grey and brown potteries with bronze and stone objects.

Division of Kurgans and large stone tombs in Northwestern Iran
Simple Chinese stone tombs: These graves are constructed of large stone and are covered with soil about half a meter from the surrounding lands. The direction of the graves was east to West (author).

Box tombs: These tombs consist of large stones. These types of graves are recognizable as mounds of soil. A raised stone with carved motifs was placed vertically on top of the tombs (author).
 
Kurgans: Kurgans in archaeology are called cone-shaped tombs. These tombs are known as plains steppe pyramids. There are several Kurgans in the Aslamdooz of Pars Abad. These tombs are about 10 to 14 meters in diameter and 5/3 to 4 meters high (author).

Discussion 
The burial traditions of the people in the Bronze Age show a general understanding of their beliefs at that time. Based on excavations in the northwest of Iran, various burial methods have been identified, and each of these patterns followed the people’s worldview. Megalithic stones and Kurgans appeared for the first time in the South Caucasus region. They later became popular in this region as a cultural connection with neighboring areas in the Northwest of Iran. Kurgans had a rectangular room consisting of the main chamber of the Kurgans, and around it, they lay stones in a circle. The shape of the circle was a sacred symbol in the past. For this reason, since prehistoric times, the circle motif has been used on pottery, metal objects, architectural structures, and in constructing Kurgans and megalithic tombs in the Bronze Age.

Conclusion
Based on the study, most Kurgans have been discovered from outside the current borders of Iran related to the Early and Middle Bronze Age and are larger than the Kurgans found in Iran. While most of the Kurgans and large stone tombs belong to the Late Bronze Age and Early Iron Age, most are in Eastern Azerbaijan and Ardabil in Northwestern Iran. Kurgans and large stone tombs in this area and the shape and burial objects inside these tombs are similar to the large stone tombs found in the Southern Caucasus, especially in Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan. Additional evidence related to the stelae or raised stone tombs was found on the Ardabil plain in the Late Bronze Age. There are carved animal motifs on these stones. These raised stones belonged to Bronze Age sites in Azerbaijan and Kazakhstan. Inside tombs of the Zardkhaneh site in Ahar are Urmia potteries, and samples of these potteries have been discovered in Kura-Aras cultures in Armenia and the Republic of Azerbaijan. Another Bronze Age site in Northwestern Iran with shiny grey pottery is the Buini Yughun site in the Nir area, similar to the Urmia potteries. In the Southern Caucasus, Anatolia, and Northwestern Iran, the Bronze Age was characterized by mass metal production, trade with the neighboring area, economic growth, construction of military buildings, and large stone tombs. The discovery of valuable objects in this period shows these societies’ high economic and social levels in the Bronze Age. One of the essential pieces of evidence is the discovery of the arrowhead of the Obsidian in the Zardkhaneh site of Ahar. The discovery of the Urmia potteries and Obsidian in the Bronze Age shows trade relations between Northwestern Iran and the Southern Caucasus in the Late Bronze Age.

Abstract
The third millennium BC marked a period of significant cultural, economic, and commercial exchanges between Iran and neighboring regions, including the Indus Valley, Mesopotamia, the Persian Gulf, the Oman Sea, and Central Asia. This article aims to investigate the cultural semiotics and connections between the Bronze Age sites of Southeast Iran, with an emphasis on Shahr-e Sukhteh, Shahdad, and Tepe Yahya. In this research, the seals and seal impressions of sites in the southeast of Iran, including Shahdad and Shahr-e Sukhteh, will be studied and analyzed based on comparative studies with important sites in Central Asia, including Balkh, Merv, Mondigak, Altintepe, Gonor Tepe, Dashlitepe, Tughlaq, and Ordos region. Therefore, in the framework of the signs studied on seals and seal impressions, a suggestion is made that there have been cultural connections between these regions in the Bronze Age. Based on this, the research questions have been raised as follows: What are the similarities between the motifs of pottery and seals? What are the similarities between the cultural artifacts found in the southeastern region of Iran and the Central Asian region? Were the visible similarities connected and serving a common purpose? Knowing the cultural interactions of these societies requires the study of the material evidence left by them. According to the distances between the ancient sites of the third millennium BC, these signs can be the result of a specific and guided thought that appeared in the sites of the eastern half of the Iranian plateau. The transfer of ideas from one place to another has occurred due to extensive commercial connections between societies. This shows that the cultural interactions between Central Asia and the eastern and southeastern regions of Iran and part of the Indo-European culture in the Bronze Age could have originated from common beliefs and ideas.
Keywords: Bronze Age, Seal, Semiology, Southeastern Iran, Central Asia.

Introduction
Seals and seal impressions have been obtained from Bronze Age sites in the southeast of Iran, which are comparable to Central Asian seal samples. On many metal seals and the seals impressions, there are patterns that are similar to those created on the pottery of Shahdad, Shahr-e sukhteh and Tepe Yahya. Several theories have been presented about these signs on pottery samples, including their use as the owner’s mark, the potter’s signature or the trade mark of the pottery workshop, and some signs for measuring volume and numerical value. The use of these signs on the seal samples, potteries, containers and human and animal figures in the third millennium BC both individually and in combination as a part of human mentality along with numerous concepts, originated and were drawn.  It seems that some of these signs are same on the pottery that are repeated in the seals, and some of them are similar to the signs from the Proto- Elamite period to the end of the Bronze Age. Markers have created marks with special purpose and thoughts on seals and potteries and have tried to transfer them. The signs could be ownership concepts, rituals and beliefs of the societies of that period. Out of the total number of 400 seals and seal impressions from the studied areas, 206 seals and seal impressions have signs.

History of signs on pottery and seals in the study areas
In many seals of Shahr-e sukhteh and Shahdad, as well as in some study areas of Central Asia, various geometric, animal such as reptiles and birds, plants and human motifs have been found. In addition to motifs, signs can be seen on the seals that are very similar to the signs created on the pottery of Shahdad, Shahr-e sukhteh, Tepe Yahya and other sites, and in some cases, the seal itself is in the form of a sign. Some signs are similar to Proto- Elamite signs, and others are similar to the body parts of gods (hands, feet, and heads). Most of the signs in the Shahr-e Sukhteh are on sherds related to the bottom of dishes and pear-shaped glasses, which were obtained from the layers related to industrial and residential areas, as well as in the surface surveys of the mounds and cemeteries of the city. Most of the signs on the Shahdad pottery are on the intact vessels obtained from the burials. Incised Signs have been seen on the red pottery of Shahdad (Cemetery A)., these signs were created on pieces of hand-made and almost rough pottery in Tepe Yahya. Most of the signs of Tepe Yahya pottery are grooved on the outer body of the vessel and on the upper part of the bottom, and some on the bottom. From Balkh and Marv, signs are placed on the body or under the bottom of bowls and plates. In Altin Tepe, signs on the clay figurines have also been seen, which Mason considers to be comparable to the signs of the Proto- Elamite, Early Sumerian, and Harappan periods. Also, these signs have been seen in the eastern areas of Iranian plateau, Bampur, Baluchistan, Pakistan, and in sites such as Damb Sadat and Quetta, Amri, Balakot and Rahman Dehri in Mundigag in Afghanistan, and some sites of the Chalcolithic period in India. On the seals, in addition to the two key sites of Shahdad and Shahr-e Sukhteh, there are signs from the sites of the northern regions of the Iranian plateau, such as: Tepe Hesar, sites of Central Asia, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, northern Afghanistan, many examples of Altin Tepe settlements, in the northern foothills of the Kopet Dagh mountain range and the abandoned oases of Tughlaq and Gonor related to the Margiana culture were found in the desert plains, in the north of Marv city. In addition, signs on the seals were obtained from the mounds related to the South bacteria culture in the vicinity of Balkh city in Afghanistan and Sapali Tepe and Jarkotan in Uzbekistan, related to the Northern Bacteria culture.  Also, many seals have been found from Ordos, with common signs with the main sites of Central Asia and three sites in the southeastern Iran.

The case studies
Out of the total number of 400 seals and seal impressions in Southeastern Iran and Central Asia, 206 seals and seal impressions contain signs. 11 seals and impressions from Shahr-e Sukhteh and 30 seals and impressions from Shahdad have common signs. Based on the study, it has been determined that there are 33 signs common among the seals and pottery of all three sites of Shahr-e Sukhteh, Shahdad and Tepe Yahya. The commonalities of seals sign and the impressions and potteries in the three sites mentioned in the southeastern Iran and also Central Asia sites have been identified. The studied seals belong to the second half of the third millennium BP. Some pottery samples with similar signs seem to belong to the researched time period. The common signs between seals and the impressions and potteries are divided into three groups, including conceptual, geometric and plant groups (rosette, wheat cluster). According to some beliefs, some signs are derived from the organs of the gods. For example, the picture of the great goddess is frequently seen in many prehistoric potteries from Eurasia. The relevance of these signs with the religious cult of the Great Goddess has been spread and proven in a vast land. In this way, some symbols of the cult of the Great Goddess later became proto-writing. According to the beliefs of the people of the region, these signs are symbols of fertility, vitality and security. It can be acknowledged that these signs as a tool have revealed concepts that cannot be expressed in any other way, in other words, it is a transcendent truth that has become in the form of the symbol. Some of the incised signs, with a qualitative connotation, have emerged over time and have adapted to the spirit of truth-seeking in human and have become symbols.

Conclusion
For better understanding, the signs of seals and the impressions are prepared and shown in tables. The studied signs are in the form of simple and broken crosses (right round and left round), concentric circles, spiral patterns, crossed lines, simple circle and signs in the form of T, S, Y, M, W, stepped shapes, Star and many signs that are unclear. Some signs, including plant patterns in the form of rosettes, wheat stalks, are easily recognizable. Sometimes several signs are seen together on the surface of a seal. Comparative and statistical studies have been done on the signs of seals and potteries. The information obtained from the study of seals and the impressions has led to a detailed investigation and analysis of their patterns. After that, it has been concluded that the signs of the study area are classified into three main types: conceptual, geometric, and plant. Part of the cases, according to their characteristics and importance, the seal is created by the artist in the same form as the sign (picture 7). Another part of the signs that have been grooved on the pottery, have been depicted on the seals in the form of one or more signs (picture 6). In some motifs, the symbols of the gods in human form, the form, and organ and body parts of the gods are reminiscent of the common signs on the pottery and seals of all the three sites of Shahdad, Shahr-e Sukhteh, Tepe Yahya and also the Central Asia sites. This can originate from the thought that some of the organs related to the gods have become a sign of the symbol. The way conceptual signs are placed and arranged can induce message transmission; it is suggested that there are probably early writing signs in the study period, which we have not managed to discover the documentation of them. The commonalities between the signs on the pottery and seals of South-eastern Iran with the seals of some regions of Central Asian are as if their creators had common thoughts and at this time, this tradition of marking on seals and pottery became common. In general, and with collective study of these signs, in any case, it can be said that whatever the use of these signs was, it indicates that the sign makers have used the signs as a message to the future generations and have created these signs on a seal and together and sometimes as a set of signs. The spread of the discussed signs on seals and also on pottery can be considered as an expression of cultural influences and interactions between the mentioned regions in the Bronze Age.

Abstract
The potential vulnerability of primitive societies to natural disasters, such as droughts, floods, and famines caused by climate change, is an important issue that requires careful study. The main aim of this research is to investigate the possible effects of ancient environmental and climatic changes on Bronze Age settlements in southeastern Iran, as well as the main dynasties that ruled Iran based on archaeological and historical evidence of territorial boundaries, economic and political prosperity. Adaptation of climatic and cultural changes in the southeast of Iran can provide valuable information for researchers. In this regard, this article aims to answer the question of whether climate change has affected the ancient societies of Jiroft, and to what extent climate change has affected the economic prosperity and political influence of the ruling dynasties that have affected Iran. In the present study, using a combination of geochemical and pollinological indicators, we examine paleoclimatic changes of the southeastern plateau of Iran during the past 4000 years. Significant agricultural activities existed between 3900 and 3700 years ago in the southeast of Iran during moderate climatic conditions. Dry conditions with increased dust prevailed over the region from 3300 to 2900 years ago. Wet conditions from about 2900 to 2300 years ago facilitated extensive agriculture and coincided with the flourishing of regional governments such as the Medes, Urartos, and Mannas in the western Iran, and after that the Achaemenid Empire throughout Greater Iran. The decline of the Achaemenid Empire coincided with the beginning of a dry period that made agriculture less prosperous in Jiroft for nearly 200 years. Southeast Iran experienced humid conditions between 1550 and 1300 years ago, which coincided with the economic prosperity of the middle to late Sassanid Empire.
Keywords: Climate change, Sassanid, Bronze Age, Sediment core, Achaemenids.

Introduction
This study aims to reconstruct the paleoclimate history in southeastern Iran by tracing the landscape changes and climate fluctuations since the Late Bronze Age and their impacts on human societies based on palaeo-environmental analysis of a wetland system. It will further evaluate the possible impacts of climate change on major ruling dynasties of Iran since the Late Bronze Age. An example of the latter would be following the territorial extent of major ruling dynasties from historical records, which would have been quintessential to society’s prosperity and growth coeval to favorable climatic conditions for agriculture and trade, and the development of city-states. The study involves a multi-proxy palaeo-environmental reconstruction using geochemical, and paleoecological proxies in a 250-cm long peat sequence near the archaeological complex at Konar Sandal near Jiroft, covering the last 4000 cal yr BP. The different proxies suggest changes in elemental concentrations, stable isotopes, and pollen records. 

Materials and methods
Palynological analysis were done in Thirty-five subsamples at intervals of 1-10 cm at the Institut Méditerranéen de Biodiversité et d’Ecologie, Aix-en-Provence, France by procedure described by Gurjazkaite et al. (2018). 

Geographical setting
Konar Sandal (25 km south of Jiroft in southeast Iran) is the main excavation site in the Jiroft Valley. Several high mountain chains surround it, some of them rising to 3700 m asl (Fig. 1). The Halil Rud stretches from north to southeast for almost 400 km through fertile agricultural land before draining into the Jazmurian playa south of Konar Sandal. The water level in the river fluctuates throughout the year.

Results
The sediment core was divided into six major units based on the sedimentological, geochemical, and palynological characteristics (Fig 2 and Fig. 3). The elemental ratios (Si/Al, Ti/Al, and Fe/Al) had relatively low values in Unit 1 (U 1; 250-189 cm; 4011-3548 cal yr BP). The first significant appearance of Cerealia-type pollen occurred in this unit extending from 3880-3700 cal yr BP (230-207 cm). The δ13COM showed a distinct increase in Unit 2 (U 2; 189-164 cm; 3548-3293 cal yr BP). Unit 3 (U 3; 164-134 cm; 3293-2897 cal yr BP) was characterized by high elemental ratios (Si/Al, Ti/Al, and Fe/Al). The K/Ti ratio had the highest values in the entire core in Unit 4 (U 4; 134-106 cm; 2897-2302 cal yr BP). δ13COM values were more negative in Unit 5 (U 5; 106-61 cm; 2302-1540 cal yr BP). Unit 6 (U 6; 61-10 cm; 1540-854 cal yr BP) was characterized by moderate values of different elemental ratios. 


Discussion
Around 3950 cal yr BP a wet period prevailed based on elemental ratios, stable C isotope, and pollen (Fig. 3). Between 3900 and 3300 cal yr BP, mild climate conditions developed. significant appearance of Cerealia-type pollen and agricultural activities existed between 3900 and 3700 cal yr BP. Dry and windy conditions followed from ca. 3300-2900 cal yr BP with the driest conditions around 3200 cal yr BP coinciding with the regional Late Bronze Age cultural collapse. The driest conditions in this dry period occurred around 3200 cal yr BP, coinciding with the decline of the Jiraft Bronze Age civilization at the end of the Bronze Age. The long wet period extending from 2900 to 2300 cal yr BP with a high presence of Sparganium-type and intensive agricultural practices. Wet conditions in the Jiroft valley from about during this period, simultaneously with the flourishing of the powerful Medes and Achaemenid empires, facilitated extensive agriculture. The decline of the Achaemenid Empire coincided with the beginning of a dry period that made agriculture less prosperous in Jiroft Valley for nearly 200 years. The highest Ti/Al values coeval with the lowest δ13COM values suggest an increase in Aeolian activity and dry conditions between 2100 and 1650 cal yr BP. The Jiroft Valley once again experienced humid conditions between 1550 and 1300 cal yr BP, which coincides with the economic prosperity of the mid to late Sassanid Empire (Fig. 4). 

Conclusion
In the present study, using a combination of geochemical and pollinological indicators, we examine the paleo-environmental changes of the ancient Jiroft valley in the southeast of Iran during the past 4000 years and their possible effects on the settlements of the Bronze Age and the main dynasties that ruled Iran based on records. 
The Jiroft Valley experienced wet conditions between 1550 and 1300 cal yr BP, which overlapped with one of the most extensive territorial boundaries in Iran’s imperial history (the Sassanid Empire in the early 7th century C.E.). Although mild conditions prevailed between 1315 and 854 cal yr BP, agricultural activities declined, probably due to weak succession and political instability. We evaluate the archeology and history of territorial borders, economic and political prosperity. Paleo-environmental reconstruction shows that the wet periods and increased agriculture in the Jiroft Valley coincided with the peak of political influence and economic wealth of the Achaemenid and Sassanid empires. Therefore, more detailed paleoclimatic records would be helpful for investigating the interplay of political and climatic factors in the development and decline of ancient settlements and imperial powers in Eurasian history.

Abstract
Earthquakes have always been considered a threat to human settlements. According to the results of archeological studies, one of the behavioral patterns of humans in the face of earthquakes has been to permanently change their place of residence. The fact that the major part of Iran’s plateau is located in one of the earthquake-prone areas of the planet makes the research and investigation about the impact of these natural events on the human way of life, especially in the prehistoric era, to be studied more. In this direction and with the aim of assessing the impact of this natural phenomenon in Central Zagros and in order to know how humans react to this phenomenon, it has been studied. Our main question in this research revolved around how ancient earthquakes can be identified in archaeological contexts, and based on what evidence? What were the effects of this destructive phenomenon on the change in people’s biological patterns in the period after the incident? The information of this research has been collected from the archaeological excavations of Godin Tepe, Kangavar and Baba Kamal Tepe Tuiserkan from the Bronze Age to the end of the Iron Age III BC. In the following, based on the evidence of the severity of the destruction caused by the earthquake, an attempt has been made to reconstruct the intensity scale of the earthquakes based on the Mercalli scale. As a result, it was determined that the occurrence of destructive earthquakes with an intensity of more than 6 degrees on the Richter scale in the area of the investigation, especially in the Bronze and Iron Age, was not unrelated to the impact of climate change caused by the intensity of melting glaciers and the change in the hydrological conditions of the earth. After the Late Bronze Age, the events caused by this event caused the relative collapse of many settlements until the Iron III period, and practically at this time, the population of the region was reduced to the minimum possible.
Keywords: Ancient Earthquakes, Archeology of Eastern Central Zagros, Godin Tepe, Baba Kamal Tepe, Bronze & Iron Age.

Introduction
Throughout history, villages and cities have always been threatened by cultural or natural disasters such as war, fire, earthquakes, floods, and storms. Earthquakes are natural events that have been important causes of damage and destruction for humanity. The land of Iran, due to its location in the middle part of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, is always exposed to high-intensity earthquakes and is known as one of the centers of destructive earthquakes.
Studying and researching the remaining signs of ancient earthquakes in Iran according to archaeological data can provide information on long-term seismicity in different parts of this land for researchers. By using archaeological data and matching their information with specific regional geological conditions, it tries to recognize the occurrence of earthquakes that occurred in prehistoric times and their effects on the formation of settlement patterns. 
In this regard, the Kangavar Plain and the eastern region of Central Zagros have been studied and researched, focusing on the archaeological information of Godin Tepe and Baba Kamal Tepe. This research aims to investigate and identify the archaeological studies carried out in Godin Tepe and East Central Zagros to study and investigate the events that are suspected to be natural earthquake hazards in Godin Tepe and Baba Kamal. Also, the role and effect of these earthquakes in the distribution of settlements after the earthquake will be studied in the region, seeking to answer questions such as: How can the earthquake during the settlement of Tepe Godin and Tepe Baba Kamal be recognized? In what period of the settlements of Tepe Godin and Baba Kamal and with what approximate magnitude did these earthquakes occur? How can the role and effect of these earthquakes be explained by the change and distribution of settlement patterns in the post-earthquake era of the region? In the investigations and field studies, the evidence and signs of earthquakes in the Bronze Age of Godin Tepe Kangavar and the Iron Age of Baba Kamal Tepe Tuysarkan have been observed, which can be the hypothesis proposed in this regard.

Discussion
The investigation of different cultural layers showed that the Godin site experienced at least three important events that changed the lives of the people at that time. Evidence of these events can be seen in layers III5, III4, and III2 in the Bronze Age in different years between 2400 and 1650 BC. Yang, the explorer of Godin Tepe, believes that the earthquake in these phases caused destruction and destruction in the buildings, which caused the settlement to leave and the site to be abandoned at the end of phase III2. Among the damages caused by the earthquake in Godin Tepe and Baba Kamal, the following can be mentioned:- Collapse of ceilings and walls;
• Collapse of ceilings and walls;
• Debris left on the floor of the rooms;
• Crushing of healthy pottery under the debris;
• Humans being buried under the rubble and being killed by falling bricks;
• Cracks in the walls
• Abandonment of the site after the earthquake
Using the empirical relationships and the Mercalli intensity scale (MMI), we can attribute an average magnitude of 6 to Godin III2 and Iron III Baba Kamal events, and an average of 7 to Godin III4 and III5 events. 
 According to the archaeological surveys conducted in the studied area, it can be seen that the region has experienced a decrease in human settlements and population collapse in the periods after the Godin earthquakes. The reduction of settlement areas during different phases of the Middle and New Bronze Age compared to the previous layers is observed in the plains of Kangavar, Nahavand, Asadabad, Tuysarkan, Malair, Sanghar, Sahne and Borujerd. In layer III2, the number of sites with artifacts from this period increases in the region. Young and Henrikson believe Godin III2 pottery at the same time as this phase, or probably at the end of this phase, we see an increase in the nomadic process, and it is likely that this issue has influenced the increase in the number of ancient sites. 
During the Iron Age, the central Zagros region underwent changes that led to the reduction of human settlements in Iron Age I. Archaeological data show that there was no population density in Iron Age I/II in areas like Kangavar Plain. Several abrupt climate changes occurred during the Holocene epoch. This change in weather conditions, along with the earthquakes in the region, could have been a factor that affected the settlement of human populations and settlements in the region in prehistoric times and caused a change in the settlement pattern and a decrease in human populations.

Conclusion
In this study, in order to investigate the seismicity of the eastern central Zagros region and the earthquakes that occurred in the Bronze and Iron Ages of the region, the collection of evidence and documentation of the earthquakes of the mentioned periods, obtained from archaeological excavations, was collected. Earthquake evidence in Baba Kamal Tuiserkan Tepe was obtained in the form of disturbed layers with cracks in the Iron Age III clay structure. Also, these signs have been observed in the form of ruins and human remains found under the debris, scattered artifacts and pottery on the floors of residential houses, and cracks on the walls in the Bronze Age of Godin Kangavar Tepe. Godin Tepe has witnessed three destructive earthquakes in phases III5, III4, and III2, which, in addition to the destruction that followed, caused the area to be abandoned for a long time. The abandonment of the area can also be seen on Baba Kamal hill, which was without settlement until the Parthian period.
After the Godin III period until the end of the Iron Age I and II, the reduction of settlement areas is observed not only in the Kangavar plain but also in most of the surrounding areas of the Kangavar plain in the east of central Zagros. However, some researchers have pointed out the change in weather conditions as another reason for the decrease in the number of settlements in the region, and climatological research has proven that during this period, climatic dry events occurred in Southwest Asia. According to the seismicity of the central Zagros region and the evidence of earthquakes from Godin Tepe and Baba Kamal, these climate changes, along with the occurrence of earthquakes in this region, are both factors that have provided unfavorable conditions for life in the region at the same time. Based on the data obtained from the Godin and Baba Kamal sites, a magnitude of 7 was estimated for the Godin earthquakes of layers III5 and III4 and a magnitude of 6 for the earthquakes of Godin layer III2 and Iron Age III of Baba Kamal.

Abstract
One of the facts that can be seen in the archaeological contexts of the late Bronze Age in the abandonment or excessive reduction of the enclosures. At the end of the Bronze Age, many sites and settlements in the Iranian Plateau and outside the Iranian Plateau collapsed suddenly and unexpectedly, or the growing process of these societies has stopped. Researchers have considered several factor such as floods, earthquakes, immigration of newly arrived ethnic groups, etc. for this event, to these factors we can also add the effect of factors such as over urbanization, which has not been addressed much. As a result of over urbanization, challenges such as; Regional thermal changes, destruction of habitat and biodiversity and ecosystem as accelerating factors in the crises of this period could further worsen the situation. The result of this research show that after the increase in population in urban centers due to the lack of administrative planning to control the conditions caused by dense urbanization and as a result the disruption on environmental order and natural balance, the society has tried to restore the natural conditions as a stable system this attempt to return to the balance has been manifested in various ways, such as the decision to leave large settlements and move to peripheral and peripheral areas with sufficient food and water resources. The evidence of this event can be seen in areas such as Merv, Northern and Southern Balkh, and Doab areas in eastern Sind; in some cases, the crisis in the societies has increased and it has appeared in the form of newer problems such as famine and epidemics, inter regional conflicts and such things, which have led to the collapse of societies.
Keywords: Bronze Age crisis, Late Bronze, Over Urbanization, Eastern Iran, The Decline of Settlements and Civilization. 

Introduction
Over urbanization or excessive urbanization is generally used in cases where the urban population has grown unplanned and beyond the capacity of the environment and city administration, which causes the transformation and sometimes degeneration of urban communities (see Sovani, 1964). Therefore, the increase in the number of the population and the lack of environmental resources in the administration and organization of the urban population could act as a factor to disrupt the path of the Bronze Age societies. The decline of settlements and civilizations at the end of the Bronze Age is very important, and the first major collapses of the prehistoric era took place at this time, which occurred widely and in large areas of the old land. The Bronze Age in the archaeological literature refers to a period when societies gradually more from rural to more complex or urban and create trans-regional connections. Obviously, what is expected is the continuation of the development and progress of societies towards the emergence of larger and more complex civilization and states, which reached their peak of prosperity during the middle Bronze Age (see Tosi, 1976: 168). But what happened in the late Bronze Age is the abandonment of sites and depopulation of a large number of them, which can be seen as a chronological break in many Ancient sites? The evidence indicates an event during which large settlements such as Shahr-I Sokhta (Tosi, 1968). Mohenjodaro (Wheeler, 1968), Harappa (Wheeler, 1968), Altin Tepe (Masson, 1981), collapsed, although some small settlements such as Tekem Tepe (Kohl, 1984) continued to exist without any interruption. The concentration of population in urban areas and the impossibility of providing in frastructure needs in urban life due to the occurrence of over urbanization had led to disorder in social structures and population decline in Mohenjodaro and Harappa settlements. If the elites of the society do not manage or solve the problems caused by excessive urbanization, difficult conditions will arise and the society will probably solve the problem or become a problem in the form of a self-organizing system. The evidence shows that in some settlements such as Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Altin Tepe, people decided to leave the large settlements and settled in peripheral areas, and this caused the settlements to become uninhabited in the late Bronze Age. 

Identified Traces
Urbanization, which was actually a cultural and social revolution, appeared sometime between the end of the fourth millennium and the beginning of the third millennium bc in western Asia, Egypt and Mesopotamia (Childe, 2019:1). But at the end of the Bronze Age in a wide area of the east, especially the southeast region of Iran and even beyond the current borders of Iran, such as; Central Asia and the Indus valley, many large settlements such as Shahr-I Sokhta (Tosi, 1968), Tepe Hesar (Schmidt, 1937; Dyson, 1989), Namazga (Kohl, 1981) area have declined and shrunk excessively. There are several theories about the crisis of the late Bronze Age, such as the invasion of the Aryan tribes (Girshman, 1954), disease (Robbins Schug et al., 2013), famine and earthquakes (Nur, 2009), etc., but since this discussion is about societies with an advanced level of technology and in constant relations with are their peripheral areas. The factor of excessive urbanization can be added to the above. Rapid urban growth will have consequences for the urban society. Such as the lack and absence of drinking water, urban heat island effects, unpredictable rainfalls, and increasing demand due to population growth cause environ mental destruction and air pollution. For example, in the Indus valley in period IIIC, due to extra-regional trade and large inward migrations, the previous organized settlement pattern was disrupted. The houses in the main areas of the city were thrown into the streets and then at the end of the Harappan phase, the population density decreased and some of them were concentrated in the main areas of the city and the other part moved to the east. In Turkmenistan, even though the archaeological data indicates a decrease in the Kopedagh area, no settlements are abandoned in Atak and other areas, especially Merv and Balkh.

Conclusion
In general, based on archaeological findings, the cities were formed from the old Bronze Age and reached their peak of prosperity during the middle Bronze Age. But at the end of the third millennium and the beginning of the second millennium B.C. the evidence indicates that the sites were excessively shrunk and empty of inhabitants, or the collapse of large settlements. This could have been caused by over urbanization on the basis that whenever the society’s population grows beyond the environmental resources and facilities necessary to organize people, it can create crises for urban societies. Crises such as; the increase in urban rainfall and temperature, the increase in urban waste, the lack of drinking water sources and the destruction of the environment for human well-being in large societies with high population. With the increase of urban population and the lack of resources to organize people it leads to an increase in crime, marginalization and disorder in urban organization, and when the political rulers cannot solve or manage the created problems, the people of the society left the cities and went to the marginal and peripheral areas with stable food and water resources, such as Merv, Northern and Southern Balkh, to continue their lives.

The study of cultural and economic interactions in the southeastern part of the Iranian Plateau during the third millennium BCE is a key issue for understanding the processes underlying the formation of interregional exchange networks and the emergence of early urban societies. The two major archaeological sites of Shahdad, located in the Takab Plain, and Tepe Yahya, in the Soghan Plain, occupied strategically significant positions along the communication routes linking Central Asia, the Indus Valley, and Mesopotamia, and therefore played distinct yet complementary roles within these networks.  The main objective of this research is to examine the economic and cultural status of each site within the Bronze Age exchange system and to analyze the nature of their relationships with neighboring regions. The study aims to provide a comparative analytical approach to archaeological data in order to identify patterns of production, distribution, and transmission of cultural elements across southeastern Iran. The central research question focuses on how differences in communication routes affected the economic organization, production technologies, and cultural expressions of the two sites. The working hypothesis suggests that Shahdad, through its direct connections with the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), functioned as an intermediary center between Central Asia and the Iranian Plateau. In contrast, Tepe Yahya, with its extensive chlorite vessel production and administrative evidence, such as Proto-Elamite tablets and Persian Gulf , type seals, served as a major industrial and commercial hub along the southern trade corridor. The methodology relies on a comparative and interdisciplinary analysis of archaeological data from both sites and their contemporaneous neighboring regions. The results indicate that the cultural and material differences between Shahdad and Tepe Yahya reflect their participation in two distinct yet interconnected exchange systems. Consequently, Shahdad embodies the direct influence of Central Asian cultural elements, while Tepe Yahya retained structural ties with the Elamite, Mesopotamian, and Indus worlds. These findings demonstrate that southeastern Iran during the third millennium BCE was a dynamic intersection of independent yet interconnected cultural systems.

The transition from the late 4th millennium BCE to the Bronze and Iron Ages along the northern and southern slopes of the Alborz Mountains is a major topic in archaeology, closely linked to the emergence of urbanism. Archaeological research indicates that with the end of Sialk III, many settlements, including those on the Qazvin Plain, collapsed. Similar processes occurred during the early 3rd millennium BCE in regions such as Kashan and Tehran. Although new settlements appeared in the Qazvin Plain during the later 3rd millennium BCE, the areas of Tehran, Qomrud, and Kashan were reoccupied only after a significant gap. In contrast, the northern flank of the Alborz displays a settlement history distinct from that of the southern side. While evidence for the influence of Sialk III in the north is limited, substantial occupation during the 3rd millennium BCE suggests divergent cultural developments on the two sides of the Alborz. This study draws on archaeological data from excavations and surveys in the northern and southern Alborz Mountains to examine Bronze Age (3rd millennium BCE) cultural developments. It highlights interaction networks linking the Gorgan Plain, southern Turkmenistan, Mazandaran, northeastern Iran, and the Central Plateau through exchanges of raw materials, technologies, and pottery traditions. Evidence from sites such as Tepe Hissar, Tureng Tepe, Ghal e-Ben, Ghal e-Kash, Tepe Kalar, and Qoli Darvish demonstrates cultural diversity, overlapping ceramic traditions, and continuous or discontinuous occupational sequences. The article emphasizes a contrast between the cultural hiatus of the Iranian Central Plateau and the flourishing development of the northern Alborz, particularly eastern Mazandaran and the Gorgan Plain, where regional interaction networks expanded. By contrast, the southern Alborz reflects migration, settlement disintegration, and environmental adaptation. Overall, the study identifies the Central Alborz as a key corridor for cultural interaction and interregional networks during the Bronze Age.

Stamp seals constitute one of the most enduring elements of administrative traditions in the Central Zagros of western Iran. However, the uneven archaeological record has generated ongoing debate regarding continuity and discontinuity in their use, particularly during the late fourth and early third millennia BCE, when securely stratified evidence remains limited. Drawing on newly published materials from Tepe Tyalineh, Godin Tepe, Chogha Maran, and Dehsavar, this study reassesses the evolution of stamp seal traditions between ca. 5000 and 2500 BCE within an updated regional chronological framework. By examining the style, iconography, and archaeological contexts of stamp seals and seal impressions from a comparative perspective, the article evaluates competing interpretations of the development of administrative practices in the Central Zagros. The evidence indicates that stamp seals and seal impressions were employed in the region from the Early Chalcolithic (5000–4600 BCE) through Late Chalcolithic phases 1–3 (4600–3700 BCE), during which they continued to develop locally while interacting with broader supra-regional networks. Although the archaeological record suggests an apparent gap during Late Chalcolithic phases 4–5 (3700–3100 BCE), stamp seal traditions persisted into the Early Bronze Age (3100–2500 BCE). While these traditions underwent significant transformation and were increasingly overshadowed by cylinder seals and supra-regional administrative systems during the later fourth millennium BCE, they nevertheless continued to play a role in local administrative practices in the Early Bronze Age. The analysis suggests that this apparent gap is more plausibly explained by biases in archaeological visibility, preservation, excavation coverage, and chronological resolution than by an actual interruption in the production and use of stamp seals. Overall, the study supports a model of relative continuity accompanied by stylistic, iconographic, and administrative transformation within the Central Zagros glyptic tradition. These findings underscore the active role of Central Zagros communities in the development of administrative practices and contribute to broader discussions of cultural continuity, interregional interaction, and the emergence of sociopolitical institutions in prehistoric Southwest Asia.

The archaeological sites of the Ardabil Plain provide essential evidence for understanding the cultural sequences of northwestern Iran and its interactions with the Iranian Plateau, the South Caucasus, and eastern Anatolia. Among these sites, the mound of Qaleh Yeri–Kuraim is of particular significance. This paper presents the results of the first season of stratigraphic excavations conducted in 2023, based on two test trenches. Test Trench I (TTI) was opened to establish a comprehensive cultural sequence at the site, while Test Trench II (TTII) targeted deposits associated with the Transcaucasian/Kura Araxes Early Bronze Age horizon. The excavations revealed substantial archaeological evidence, including dry stone and mudbrick architectural remains, industrial installations such as kilns, metallurgical evidence, and extensive ceramic assemblages. In TTI, a long and well defined stratigraphic sequence of approximately 14.6 meters was documented, containing successive and occasionally alternating layers with Islamic, historical, and Bronze Age pottery. This sequence represents one of the most continuous stratigraphic records in the eastern sector of northwestern Iran. TTII yielded significant evidence of metallurgical activities, including furnace remains, slag, copper ore fragments, ceramic molds, and crucibles, indicating metal smelting, refining, and production during the Early Bronze Age. Eco-factual evidence, including animal remains (primarily sheep and cattle) and plant remains (notably wheat and barley), reflects a subsistence economy based on mixed farming and animal husbandry. Special finds such as obsidian tools, spindle whorls, grinding stones, bone implements, and clay figurines demonstrate a range of domestic, economic, and symbolic activities from the Bronze Age through the historical and Islamic periods. In the absence of absolute dating, the site’s chronology currently relies on relative dating and ceramic typology. The results indicate long term occupation interrupted by two major hiatuses, likely linked to tectonic, environmental, and historical changes.