The artifact studied in this paper is a bimetallic sword made of bronze handle and an iron blade, which was excavated from the Tol ancient cemetery, located in Talash city, Gilan province, in 2001 by Mohammad Reza Khaltabari. This research aims to study the technology and pathology of the mentioned object by conducting comparative and archeological studies using the library method, conducting technological studies using the laboratory methods of radiography, metallography, and microstructural observations using a scanning electron microscope (SEM-EDS). The phase analysis of corrosion products was done by X-ray diffraction (XRD), as well as knowing the manufacturing method and identifying the types of damage and corrosion. The result shows that this work belongs to the Iron Age. Also, the tests performed on the two parts of the handle and the blade showed that the material of the iron blade is iron-carbon alloy. The amount of carbon in different parts of the body of blade is not the same and the handle is made of bronze alloy with casting and hammering techniques. It also has a galvanic corrosion effect.

Ziwiye, as one of the key sites for Iran’s North West Iron Age (Median kingdom), has many masterpieces kept in different museums and a long list of publications. The main part of this list consists of monographs that are written based on one or more limited objects from an out of context collection. There are few articles that comprehensively include the findings “attributed Ziwiye” and “came from excavation”. However, many articles have been published about Zavieh’s findings, but parts of this collection still remain unknown and do not receive enough attention. The corpus of bone arrowheads is one of them, some of which were found during archaeological excavations while others came to museums from antiquities dealers. These include: the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, Musée du Louvre in Paris, the National Museum of Iran in Tehran, and the Sanandaj Archaeological Museum. This article aims to introduce and categorize 51 bone arrowheads. Some of these were registered as ivories, but our research concluded that all of these were made of bone. In few instances, the production manner prevented the proper identification of bone versus ivory. Another examined point in this research is whether such arrowheads were produced for actual warfare or for prestige and symbolic use in ceremonial events considering their bone material. The examined samples from other sites show that bone can be hard enough to penetrate game and human body even with light protection such as archery. Bone for making arrowheads was used for hunting big games and some tribes still use them.

Abstract
Urmia lake basin is one of the most important cultural basins known in the archeology of Iran and has had a significant contribution in the historical and cultural evolution of northwestern Iran. Urmia plain and its surrounding heights have a special place among them. Due to the favorable environmental conditions in the Iron Age, important settlements were formed in the Urmia Plain. So far, forty-seven sites related to the Iron Age III (850 to 550 BC) have been identified in this plain that classified in the two parts of the settlement sites of the plain (39 settlement sites) and the defensive castles around it (8 castles). Among the forty-seven sites of Iron Age III (850 to 550 BC), thirty-two sites were formed on previous settlements and fifteen sites were formed for the first time. Among the thirty-nine settlement sites belonging to the Iron Age III of Urmia Plain, thirty-one sites with an area between half and five hectares are small villages and settlements. Three Sites are between five and ten hectares and three Sites are between ten and fifteen hectares. The two site of Goy tepe and Dizaj-Takieh, with an area between fifteen and twenty-four hectares, are considered among the large sites of Iron Age III of Urmia Plain. The distribution of ancient sites in the studied area is not the same, and among the thirty-nine settlement sites that have Iron Age III layers, a limited number are located in the higher areas of the western, southern and northern belt, and the absolute majority of the settlements are located in the flat plain of Urmia. Most of the settlement sites (about 76%) are less than a thousand meters away from water sources and rivers, and this shows that the water factor is the most important factor in the location selection of settlements in this era. During most of this period, Urmia region was considered one of the Urartian states. The results obtained from the analysis of GIS maps show that despite the pattern of Urartian settlements, which tends to settle and administrative management in mountainous and higher areas, the main and residential settlements of this era were formed in the lowland and their management was only in Military forts were located in higher peripheral areas.
Keywords: Urmia Plain, Iron Age III, Settlement Patterns, Urartu, Mana.

Introduction
Urmia plain is one of the fertile areas in the northwest of Iran, and therefore it has been the focus of human societies from the past until now, and the evidence left behind, such as numerous historical hills, testify to the establishment and exploitation of this plain in different prehistoric times. And it is historical. Even though the archeology teams have investigated the Urmia plain in the past and identified important sites, but most of them only identified and registered the sites And they have not provided chronological and analytical information related to the trajectory of the formation and expansion of Iron Age III sites And this issue has caused the failure to present a detailed map of the pattern of settlements and the state of the sites in this period. Therefore, studying the state of settlements, their formation and expansion can be effective in understanding the cultures and settlement patterns of this period in this great plain. The archeological survey of Urmia Plain was conducted with the aim of identifying and investigating the ancient sites of the Iron Age III and also studying settlement patterns in two seasons in the fall of 2019 and the spring and summer of 2020. The present article, by examining the sites of Iron Age III in the Urmia plain, studied the formation and expansion of the sites according to variables such as height above sea level, water sources, distance and proximity to rivers and vegetation And based on their size, they are ranked and finally, it analyzes and reconstructs the regional landscape of Urmia plain in the Iron Age3 and the environmental patterns of the settlements of this period.

The text of the article and the main discussion
The beginning of the Iron Age III in the important settlement areas of northwestern Iran, including Hasanlu, has been determined following the massive fires that occurred at the end of the Iron Age 2 and led to the destruction of the settlements of this period. Chronologically, this era coincides with the emergence of a new pottery phenomenon, which Young (Young 1965:70) called the new Buff Ware horizon, that appeared in many sites in western Iran. Based on this, in the northwest of Iran, especially in the Urmia lake basin, the Iron 3 period has been introduced at the same time as Hasanlu layer 3. Urmia Plain, as the largest plain on the western shore of Lake Urmia, witnessed extensive changes in the first millennium BC. The importance of the Urmia plain, and its location at an important crossing in the first half of the first millennium BC, has caused the attention of the governments of Urartu, Assyria and even Manna. Urmia Plain in the Iron Age III due to these favorable environmental conditions, especially the flow of permanent and abundant rivers, numerous springs, suitable and fertile land, rich pastures and abundant hunting, has received more and more attention and received a significant population. A population that relies on agricultural livelihood more than anything else, and the location of settlements has been done near stable water sources and main rivers And these places have been chosen according to the topography, slope and type of soil so that water supply to the land can be done easily and also have fertile soil. Among the forty-seven sites of Iron Age III (850 to 550 BC), thirty-two sites were formed on previous settlements and fifteen sites were formed for the first time in this settlement period. Among the thirty-nine settlement sites, thirty-one sites have an average area between half and five hectares, six areas have an area of between five and fifteen hectares, and two areas have an area between fifteen and twenty-four hectares. Among the four major settlement and non-settlement sites of this region, namely Goy tepe, Bari, Ismail-Agha Castle and Dizaj-takiyeh, two sites of Ismail-Agha Castle and Bari Castle are located in the mountainous areas overlooking the Urmia Plain And as fortresses and defensive fortifications, and two settlement sites, Goy tepe and Dizaj-takiyeh, have served as the central places of the plain. By looking at the distribution map of the settlements of this era and paying attention to geographical variables such as distance and proximity to water sources, agricultural lands and the size of the areas, the pattern of settlements in the region can be determined. Most of the sites are formed in the plain. Considering that water has always played an important role in the formation of these establishments and is considered an important indicator for their analysis, It is obvious that the flat areas and near permanent springs and rivers have been given more attention by these tribes. The higher areas of Urmia region have fewer settlements. These settlements can be considered as seasonal settlements, because they were forced to leave the place immediately when the amount of water decreased. Therefore, it seems that the permanent settlements are mainly formed along the permanent rivers. Other geographical variables such as distance and proximity to fertile and suitable agricultural lands and altitude above sea level are effective in this increase in population and settlements.

Conclusion
Among the 187 hills and historical sites identified in Urmia Plain, forty-seven sites from the Iron Age have been identified. Two pottery traditions have been identified, including the Urartian pottery tradition and the local pottery tradition with simple Buff Ware with the influence of late Manna pottery. In addition, suitable environmental conditions have made the Urmia plain one of the main agricultural areas of Azerbaijan, so that this area is considered one of the key areas in the development and population increase in the northwestern plateau of Iran (Biscone 2003:167). Settlement patterns in the Urmia Plain, including residential settlements in the bottom of valleys and low plains and close to fertile lands and water sources, especially permanent and abundant rivers in the region and the creation of fortresses and defense fortifications in the higher parts and on top of the rocks. The establishment of residential centers in the Urmia plain was done during the dominance of the Urartu in the alluvial lands of the plain And the main military centers have been built in the form of strong fortresses in the surrounding heights of this plain and The small sites in Urmia plain, which are less than nineteen sites and their size is less than three hectares, are residential units and small villages that were engaged in agriculture And other settlements of this era in the Urmia plain, which number up to eighteen settlements, are between three and fifteen hectares in size. And they are managed by two large and central sites, Goy tepe and Dizaj- Takiye. Therefore, according to Chrystaller’s model, Goy tepe, as the largest settlement site in the Urmia plain, controlled the central and northern sites of the plain, and Dizaj- Takiye, in the second place in size, controlled the southern sites of the Urmia plain.

Abstract
Earthquakes have always been considered a threat to human settlements. According to the results of archeological studies, one of the behavioral patterns of humans in the face of earthquakes has been to permanently change their place of residence. The fact that the major part of Iran’s plateau is located in one of the earthquake-prone areas of the planet makes the research and investigation about the impact of these natural events on the human way of life, especially in the prehistoric era, to be studied more. In this direction and with the aim of assessing the impact of this natural phenomenon in Central Zagros and in order to know how humans react to this phenomenon, it has been studied. Our main question in this research revolved around how ancient earthquakes can be identified in archaeological contexts, and based on what evidence? What were the effects of this destructive phenomenon on the change in people’s biological patterns in the period after the incident? The information of this research has been collected from the archaeological excavations of Godin Tepe, Kangavar and Baba Kamal Tepe Tuiserkan from the Bronze Age to the end of the Iron Age III BC. In the following, based on the evidence of the severity of the destruction caused by the earthquake, an attempt has been made to reconstruct the intensity scale of the earthquakes based on the Mercalli scale. As a result, it was determined that the occurrence of destructive earthquakes with an intensity of more than 6 degrees on the Richter scale in the area of the investigation, especially in the Bronze and Iron Age, was not unrelated to the impact of climate change caused by the intensity of melting glaciers and the change in the hydrological conditions of the earth. After the Late Bronze Age, the events caused by this event caused the relative collapse of many settlements until the Iron III period, and practically at this time, the population of the region was reduced to the minimum possible.
Keywords: Ancient Earthquakes, Archeology of Eastern Central Zagros, Godin Tepe, Baba Kamal Tepe, Bronze & Iron Age.

Introduction
Throughout history, villages and cities have always been threatened by cultural or natural disasters such as war, fire, earthquakes, floods, and storms. Earthquakes are natural events that have been important causes of damage and destruction for humanity. The land of Iran, due to its location in the middle part of the Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, is always exposed to high-intensity earthquakes and is known as one of the centers of destructive earthquakes.
Studying and researching the remaining signs of ancient earthquakes in Iran according to archaeological data can provide information on long-term seismicity in different parts of this land for researchers. By using archaeological data and matching their information with specific regional geological conditions, it tries to recognize the occurrence of earthquakes that occurred in prehistoric times and their effects on the formation of settlement patterns. 
In this regard, the Kangavar Plain and the eastern region of Central Zagros have been studied and researched, focusing on the archaeological information of Godin Tepe and Baba Kamal Tepe. This research aims to investigate and identify the archaeological studies carried out in Godin Tepe and East Central Zagros to study and investigate the events that are suspected to be natural earthquake hazards in Godin Tepe and Baba Kamal. Also, the role and effect of these earthquakes in the distribution of settlements after the earthquake will be studied in the region, seeking to answer questions such as: How can the earthquake during the settlement of Tepe Godin and Tepe Baba Kamal be recognized? In what period of the settlements of Tepe Godin and Baba Kamal and with what approximate magnitude did these earthquakes occur? How can the role and effect of these earthquakes be explained by the change and distribution of settlement patterns in the post-earthquake era of the region? In the investigations and field studies, the evidence and signs of earthquakes in the Bronze Age of Godin Tepe Kangavar and the Iron Age of Baba Kamal Tepe Tuysarkan have been observed, which can be the hypothesis proposed in this regard.

Discussion
The investigation of different cultural layers showed that the Godin site experienced at least three important events that changed the lives of the people at that time. Evidence of these events can be seen in layers III5, III4, and III2 in the Bronze Age in different years between 2400 and 1650 BC. Yang, the explorer of Godin Tepe, believes that the earthquake in these phases caused destruction and destruction in the buildings, which caused the settlement to leave and the site to be abandoned at the end of phase III2. Among the damages caused by the earthquake in Godin Tepe and Baba Kamal, the following can be mentioned:- Collapse of ceilings and walls;
• Collapse of ceilings and walls;
• Debris left on the floor of the rooms;
• Crushing of healthy pottery under the debris;
• Humans being buried under the rubble and being killed by falling bricks;
• Cracks in the walls
• Abandonment of the site after the earthquake
Using the empirical relationships and the Mercalli intensity scale (MMI), we can attribute an average magnitude of 6 to Godin III2 and Iron III Baba Kamal events, and an average of 7 to Godin III4 and III5 events. 
 According to the archaeological surveys conducted in the studied area, it can be seen that the region has experienced a decrease in human settlements and population collapse in the periods after the Godin earthquakes. The reduction of settlement areas during different phases of the Middle and New Bronze Age compared to the previous layers is observed in the plains of Kangavar, Nahavand, Asadabad, Tuysarkan, Malair, Sanghar, Sahne and Borujerd. In layer III2, the number of sites with artifacts from this period increases in the region. Young and Henrikson believe Godin III2 pottery at the same time as this phase, or probably at the end of this phase, we see an increase in the nomadic process, and it is likely that this issue has influenced the increase in the number of ancient sites. 
During the Iron Age, the central Zagros region underwent changes that led to the reduction of human settlements in Iron Age I. Archaeological data show that there was no population density in Iron Age I/II in areas like Kangavar Plain. Several abrupt climate changes occurred during the Holocene epoch. This change in weather conditions, along with the earthquakes in the region, could have been a factor that affected the settlement of human populations and settlements in the region in prehistoric times and caused a change in the settlement pattern and a decrease in human populations.

Conclusion
In this study, in order to investigate the seismicity of the eastern central Zagros region and the earthquakes that occurred in the Bronze and Iron Ages of the region, the collection of evidence and documentation of the earthquakes of the mentioned periods, obtained from archaeological excavations, was collected. Earthquake evidence in Baba Kamal Tuiserkan Tepe was obtained in the form of disturbed layers with cracks in the Iron Age III clay structure. Also, these signs have been observed in the form of ruins and human remains found under the debris, scattered artifacts and pottery on the floors of residential houses, and cracks on the walls in the Bronze Age of Godin Kangavar Tepe. Godin Tepe has witnessed three destructive earthquakes in phases III5, III4, and III2, which, in addition to the destruction that followed, caused the area to be abandoned for a long time. The abandonment of the area can also be seen on Baba Kamal hill, which was without settlement until the Parthian period.
After the Godin III period until the end of the Iron Age I and II, the reduction of settlement areas is observed not only in the Kangavar plain but also in most of the surrounding areas of the Kangavar plain in the east of central Zagros. However, some researchers have pointed out the change in weather conditions as another reason for the decrease in the number of settlements in the region, and climatological research has proven that during this period, climatic dry events occurred in Southwest Asia. According to the seismicity of the central Zagros region and the evidence of earthquakes from Godin Tepe and Baba Kamal, these climate changes, along with the occurrence of earthquakes in this region, are both factors that have provided unfavorable conditions for life in the region at the same time. Based on the data obtained from the Godin and Baba Kamal sites, a magnitude of 7 was estimated for the Godin earthquakes of layers III5 and III4 and a magnitude of 6 for the earthquakes of Godin layer III2 and Iron Age III of Baba Kamal.

Abstract
South Rudbar Plain, with an area of more than 6000 square kilometers, is one of the important archaeological areas in the southeast of the Halil-Rood cultural area. This area, due to its favorable environmental conditions, including the permanent water of the Halil-Rood River, the fertile and vast plains, and the pasture heights in the northern part, as well as due to its geographical capacity and the communication route between Sindh and Sistan to Jiroft, was the foundation for the presence of human societies with the livelihood structures such as sedentary lifestyle and nomadic. As a result of two seasons of Archaeological surveys in South Rudbar plain during the last two decades, a number of ancient settlements were identified in this area. However, in these surveys, the focus is on pre-historic sites, while the sites of the Islamic era have not been studied deeply and completely, and only their GPS points have been recorded and incomplete descriptions of them have been provided. Therefore, answers have not yet been provided to questions about the role and influence of environmental factors on the distribution of Islamic settlements and the formation of livelihood organizations. In the following article, for the first time, the effect of environmental factors on Settlements of the Islamic era in Rudbar plain was studied with an analysis based on the findings of two archaeological surveys, documentary studies, and the preparation and interpretation of GIS maps. For this purpose, the settlements of Rudbar plain were divided into two time periods based on relative dating: “first to early middle Islamic centuries” and “late centuries (from the 10th century AH onwards)”. Then, environmental factors such as altitude above sea level, resources water, amount and direction of the slope of the lands, soil characteristics, and condition of roads in connection with settlement evidence were analyzed. The results of the research show that the most important factors affecting the formation, distribution, and organization of the livelihood of the Rudbar plain settlements in the Islamic era are the Halil-Rood River and the Aqueducts as the water sources in the peripheral parts, the trade route of Jiroft to Sind and Sistan, and the unevenness of the north and northeast for benefit from the potential of animal husbandry.
Keywords: South Roudbar, Environmental Factors, Distribution of Residence, GIS, Islamic Archaeology.

Introduction
The environment and its substrates are very important in examining the distribution pattern of ancient sites in a region. According to archaeological research, Rudbar plain has been a suitable place for human societies to live since at least the Copper Age (cf. Daneshi and Eskandari, 2016). This area as a commercial crossing (Yacoubi, 1963: 62) and one of the important areas of agricultural and livestock production (Sarhadi, 2017: 24), is very important in the archaeological studies of the Halil Road cultural area. However, the settlements of the Islamic era in the Rudbar plain do not have a share in the previous archeological studies and there are questions about this, which of the environmental factors and at what qualitative and quantitative level is effective in the distribution of settlements in the Rudbar plain in the south of Halil Roud cultural region during the Islamic era?
Based on this, the main purpose of this research is to investigate and analyze environmental factors affecting the formation and development of the Islamic settlements of Rudbar plain with a focus on geological features, altitude, water resources, and trade routes. Despite the numerous narratives of the early Islamic geographers about this region (see: Yaqoubi, 1963; Ibn Hawqal, 1966; Istakhari, 1994), no independent research has been done to identify and investigate the Islamic era settlements in Rudbar plain; and this issue shows the necessity and importance of this research. Also, the results of this research can help to understand the roots of the urban culture of this region in the early Islamic Middle Ages. 
The current research is historical research and a descriptive-analytical method was used. Research data has been collected by documentary and field methods. 

Discussion
The statistical database under study includes 53 sites and historical monuments, which are divided into two groups of settlement evidence, “first to seventh century AH” and “late Islamic centuries (Safavid and Qajar)” based on relative chronology (Tables 1 and 2). In order to explain the impact of environmental factors on the location of these sites and evidence, a geographic information system (GIS) has been used.

1. The effect of the height coefficient on the distribution of settlements
To explain the effect of height above sea level on the formation of the landscape and the distribution of the studied settlements, the height of the Rudbar plain is classified into eight classes (Figure 3, Chart 1). The largest number of cultural evidence representing the settlements of the Islamic era have been formed in this region at an altitude between 500 and 600 meters above the surface of open water, while only 4 sites have been found at an altitude of less than 400 meters above sea level. It seems that the large number of settlements at altitudes between 500 and 600 meters, which exactly covers the slopes of Rudbar Plain, is proof of the predominance of nomadic livelihoods in the Rudbar Plain during the Islamic era, and on the other hand, the small number of sites at an altitude of less than 400 meters can be analyzed in relation to the swampy condition of the Rudbar plain and the greater extent of the Jazmurian bed in the past.

2. The effect of water resources on the distribution of settlements
According to the maps obtained from GIS, most of the sites and evidence related to the settlements are located at a close distance from the surface water network, especially the Halil Rood River (Figure 4, Diagram 2). So, 17 sites, equivalent to 32% of the sites, were developed less than 5 kilometers away from Halil Rood River and under the direct influence of this water source. Another source of water is the Aqueduct. Among the sites of the Rudbar plain, especially those located on the edge of the plain and on the surface of the alluvial cone, were developed in connection with this water source (Figure 5).

3. The influence of the roads on the distribution of settlements
South Rudbar Plain was one of the important communication crossings of the Islamic era due to its location on the old communication and trade route from Indus to Jiroft (Yaqoubi, 1963: 62). According to the explanations of geographers about this ancient road, the current route of Rudbar to Iranshahr has been determined as a part of the aforementioned ancient route and the sites found have been investigated based on this route. As a result of this analysis, 17 sites with a significant linear extension in the west-east direction are located at a distance of 500 meters to 5 kilometers from this main communication road of the region (Figures 6 and 7, Diagram 3).

4. The influence of the slope of the land and its direction on the distribution of settlements
Based on the distribution map of sites and cultural materials related to the settlement of Islamic centuries in the Rudbar plain, we are facing a relatively flat land (Figure 8, Diagram 4). Regardless of the slope of the heights, we are facing a large and relatively flat plain where all the sites found were developed on a bed with a maximum slope of 5%. In fact, in terms of the relationship between the location of the sites and the slope of the land, no significant pattern can be defined. The settlements are located in various slope directions, including south, southeast, and southwest (Figure 9). Considering that the Rudbar plain is one of the tropical areas of the Halil River basin, it seems that the direction of the slope with a southern tendency is not logical. Therefore, it is clear that other environmental factors play a more important role in choosing a place of residence.

5. The effect of land use on the distribution of settlements
As a result of the land classification of Rudbar Plain based on the type of land use in the present era, four types of land use including pasture, agriculture, slopes, and the bed of Jazmurian Lake were investigated. Referring to the output map according to the type of land use, it seems that this factor played a decisive role in the distribution of settlements (Figure 10, Diagram 5). Considering the location of the settlements in connection with pasture and agricultural lands, the pattern of distribution can be interpreted in direct relation with the nomadic livelihood structure with a wider level and the agricultural structure with a smaller level during the Islamic era in the Rudbar Plain.

Conclusion
Rudbar plain is at the southern end of the Halil Rud cultural landscape and corresponds to the current city of Rudbar Jonoob. This region has been the foundation for the presence of human societies during the Islamic era due to its environmental talent, including the permanent water of the Halil River, fertile plains, and pasture heights, as well as being located on the ancient Sind-Jiroft trade route. Based on the analysis of settlement distribution and settlement evidence of the Islamic era and taking environmental factors into consideration, it seems that the cultural landscape of Rudbar plain during the Islamic era was mostly influenced by the variables of altitude, land use, and roads. As a result of the analysis, out of a total of 54 sites and settlement effects found, 50 points are affected by surface water sources such as Halil Rood River and aqueducts, as well as in connection with large pastures and small agricultural lands. Four other local evidence of settlement in the eastern end of the central plain, due to the lack of environmental facilities where they were formed, can only be explained in connection with the ancient road from Indus to Jiroft. Apart from these last four cases, the location of 13 sites/artifacts in the central plain of Rudbar, in addition to showing the relationship with other factors such as height and land use, has also been influenced by the road factor. In general, under the influence of the geographical and ecological factors of the Rudbar plain, the dominant livelihood of the people of the region during the Islamic era was formed based on providing resources through animal husbandry, agriculture, and trade.

Abstract
The slag sites under study are located in Khatam County, Yazd Province. In the archaeological surveys of Khatam County in 1400 AH, twelve metal smelting sites were identified through abundant metallic slag, and each of these sites was sampled. Petrographic analysis revealed that the predominant slag is iron, with only one instance of copper slag. The sites where metal smelting occurred, attributed to historical and Islamic periods based on pottery, exhibited evidence of iron smelting and its compounds in eleven samples. These samples contain metallic minerals such as wustite, marcasite, hematite, and magnetite. Marcasite and wustite minerals are related to smelting furnace processes and are products of mineral substances. It appears that in some mines in the region, magnetite and hematite are the predominant minerals, while in others, hematite is the predominant mineral, with a smaller amount of magnetite, which is evident in these primary minerals within the slag. Another sample related to copper slag exhibited small vesicular structures and limited copper ore minerals (chalcopyrite, digenite, and metallic copper) within the slag matrix. Alongside these primary minerals, there is a flow-like green glassy component indicating high furnace heat. The analytical results show that the MgO content in the samples is less than the amount of lime. Therefore, the limestone in this area is mainly ordinary limestone and not dolomite. Chemical analysis revealed that metal workers in this area were more successful at producing sponge iron.
Keywords: Archaeological Survey, Slag, Iron, Ancient Mining, Khatam.

Introduction
Iran has long been recognized as a center for mining and metal smelting. Archaeological evidence indicates that northern and central Iran are among the oldest centers of metallurgy in the world. The presence of rich mineral reserves in Iran, among other factors, has influenced the growth of mining and metalworking in this region (Momenzadeh, 2005). Due to the existence of various metal ores and advanced cultures in Iran, this area can be identified as one of the main hubs of technological innovation in the field of ancient mining and metalworking. Khatam County, located in the southern part of Yazd Province, holds particular significance in the realm of iron slag. One of the earliest efforts to produce steel worldwide took place in this region (Alipour et al., 2021). Considering the evidence of steel production in this area, it is essential (Alipour, 2017) to understand the role Khatam played in iron production during the Islamic and Sassanian periods. To investigate this matter, 12 sites in Khatam County were selected for studying iron slag. The main objective of this research includes petrographic and geochemical analysis of the slag to identify the type of extracted metal(s) and the extraction process and production of metal(s) at these sites. Additionally, the provision of necessary minerals for mining in this area is also under scrutiny. Historical and field research methods were employed for this study, involving the collection of data and archaeological investigations; field studies, such as topographic mapping, photography, identification of sites and metal smelting furnaces; and examination of samples using polarizing microscopes and XRF devices. This research has addressed primary inquiries related to the type of metals in slag, the mining process, and metal production at Khatam’s iron slag sites. Overall, Khatam County held significant importance in the production of metals during ancient and Islamic times. This region is recognized as one of the ancient mining and metalworking centers, and further research into the history and mining processes in this area could provide additional insights into the history of metalworking in Iran.

Discussion
Based on XRF chemical analyses of the slag, the results indicate that the majority of the mineral content in these slags consists of iron ore, with only one case showing the presence of copper. The CaO concentrations in these slags range from 3.59 to 28.41%, and an increase in CaO leads to the production of calcium-rich olivine. The type of slag (flow, permeable, massive, or furnace bottom) significantly impacts the results of chemical analysis and the ratio of oxides of the main elements (metallic oxides and silica). Additionally, the high amount of CaO facilitates the formation of a calcium-rich silicate phase. Petrographic microscopy studies confirm these findings, revealing observable olivine phases and primary silicate phases with metallic iron minerals such as magnetite and hematite. Due to the silica content, the addition of limestone to the smelting process increases the amount of duplex iron (Fe3O4). Consequently, silica stabilizes triplex iron oxide (hematite), while limestone stabilizes spinel iron oxide (magnetite). Moreover, microscopic examinations primarily reveal metallic minerals such as magnetite and metallic iron. Furthermore, sponge iron, like many other ancient civilizations in the region under study, was produced. The production of this type of iron requires less technical knowledge than other types of iron (Abbasnejad, 2009).
Surveying the region revealed that plants such as pistachios and wild almond produce high-quality charcoal. Since blacksmiths have no idea about using additional limestone in the furnace, the smelted slags were highly adhesive, leading to significant iron loss. The use of limestone in iron removal creates slags with fine properties that are easily separated from the iron (Abbasnejad, 2009). A good slag resulting from smelting should contain 30 to 40% limestone. Tests conducted on iron ore in this region show limestone percentages ranging from 3.59 to 28.41%. The slag analysis results also indicate a small amount of limestone, averaging approximately 11.38%. The deficiency of these two elements in slag, as they play crucial roles in reducing smelting heat and separating iron from slag, can indicate high iron levels and the inadequacy of slag (adhesiveness, viscosity, high density), resulting in low-quality sponge iron. The percentage of Fe2O3 ranges from 23.20 to 74.25%, and the percentage of Al2O3 ranges from 0.003 to 0.94%. The percentage of MgO in the tested slags is less than 0.003%. According to the mineral analysis, the most important iron minerals in this region include hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4). Due to technical flaws in these furnaces, sponge iron contains impurities such as silica, phosphorus, aluminum oxide, manganese oxide, and other metallic oxides, as confirmed by various tests conducted on ore and slag.

Conclusion
Eleven samples from the metal smelting site showed evidence of iron smelting and its compounds. In these samples, metallic ores such as wustite, marcasite, hematite, and magnetite are observed. Marcasite and wustite ores are related to smelting furnace processes and are mineral byproducts. It seems that in some mines in the region, magnetite and hematite are predominant, while in others, hematite is less prevalent, and magnetite dominates. Additionally, in the sample related to copper smelting slag, small and limited vesicles of copper ores (covellite, digenite, and metallic copper) are observed alongside a part of the green glassy matrix, indicating high furnace heat. This primary mineral evidence is observed in the slags. Considering the changes in the calcium oxide (CaO) concentration, it can be inferred that this substance was added during smelting operations to aid in smelting and reduce the temperature of the furnace materials. The microscopic results of some slags reveal primary minerals, mostly hematite and magnetite metallic ores, indicating a magmatic origin for the utilized minerals. The percentages of silica (SiO2), magnesium, and aluminum in these slags are relatively low. Analyses of these slags and iron stones from this region show that a deficiency of CaO and SiO2 leads to iron loss in the slag while increasing the iron content within it.
Based on this research, it is likely that iron ore was extracted from mines near the site and was subsequently transported to this location. Given the presence of iron mines at distances of 8, 10, and 15 kilometers from these sites, these mines are likely the source of these slags. Regarding the archaeology of the region, historical references indicate that the area held significance and prominence in various historical periods, particularly during historical and Islamic eras. However, due to insufficient information about the archaeology of the region and the lack of precise dating of these sites, accurate dating of these sites is unfeasible.

Abstract
It is possible to study the climate adaptability of past and present architecture by benefiting from the sciences of archeology, architecture, geography, applied climatology and paleoclimatology. Conducting such studies in connection with the complex of Persepolis in Marvdasht plain belonging to the Achaemenid period adds new information to the scope of our knowledge of the architecture of the mentioned period. The current research seeks to evaluate three main questions: 1) What were the physical components of the architecture of Persepolis complex in order to adapt it to climatic conditions? 2) How effective were these components in line with the mentioned issue? And 3) What were the non-physical heating or cooling arrangements of the complex? The necessary information has been collected by library and field methods and analyzes of four software, AutoCAD, Climate Consultant, Ecotect, and DesignBuilder in the field of energy and architecture and processed in a descriptive-analytical way. The physical components of the architecture of the complex include its orientation towards the south with a northwest-southeast stretch, high density and height of buildings and the creation of passages with a small width, the use of mud-brick in the construction of walls and the creation of a flat covering of wooden beams, the installation of side doors and windows in the walls. South in most of the buildings are the construction of the pillared porch at the entrance of most of the buildings. These components are effective in using the radiant heat of the sun to heat the residents in some hours in the time range from October to April. However, the application of these solutions from November to March (1632 hours in total) is not enough, and heat production was needed. Probably, in order to achieve thermal comfort, the residents had time management in holding gatherings and used non-physical heating arrangements similar to portable open fire-place from the palaces of the Assyrian Empire. Finally, the climatic adaptability of the complex to the Marvdasht plain and the adoption of suitable heating and cooling measures in it have ensured the thermal comfort of the residents.
Keywords: Environmental Archeology, Persepolis Complex, Thermal Comfort in Achaemenid Architecture, Climatic Adaptability.

Introduction
Creating ecological stability between man-made and nature is necessary for the continuation of life. Architecture is one of the aspects of human life that has a direct relationship with climatic conditions. The formation of native architectural styles throughout history shows the extent of knowledge of the ethnic groups from the climatic conditions of the surrounding environment, which is based on the reading of the geographical, historical and social background of the region (Moazzen & Sad berenji, 1400: 168). When the climatic conditions in a region are favorable, human life is formed and continues there. These conditions are different in different parts of the world and it is necessary to use elements in the architectural body of the building with the aim of complying with the mentioned conditions. Archaeological evidence shows that humans have been aware of this issue since prehistoric times and have taken steps towards the optimal use of natural factors and reducing their negative consequences. The architecture of the residential and religious buildings discovered in Tepe Zagheh (Malek Shahmirzadi, 2011: 326-327) and the architectural works obtained from the V cultural period of the Tepe Sagzabad (Talaei, 2015: 145-145) are proof of such knowledge. By adopting suitable cooling and heating measures in the architectural body of the building, a mental condition is created in the residents that express their satisfaction with the thermal conditions of the environment, and it is called the thermal comfort range (Hejazizadeh & Karbalai Darei, 2014: 22).
Historical documents and archaeological data related to the Achaemenid Empire have been discovered from different parts of their territory, and architectural remains are among these discoveries. The architectural complex uncovered in the vicinity of Persepolis in Marvdasht plain is one of the architectural remains left over from the Achaemenid period. The architecture of this complex is in a way that has certain proportions and the Peymoon system (Javnmardi & et al., 2018: 123). The architectural body of each building must match the climatic conditions of the surrounding environment as much as possible in order to ensure the thermal comfort of its inhabitants. If the physical adaptability of the architecture is not enough, cooling and heating measures are taken to produce cold or heat in the building. The problem of the current research is to know the physical components of the architecture and the heating and cooling solutions thought in the architecture of the Persepolis complex in accordance with the climatic conditions of the Marvdasht plain, which can bring information about the adaptation of the architecture to the climatic conditions in the Achaemenid period.

Identified Traces
The physical components of the Achaemenid architecture of Persepolis, in order to implement these arrangements, include the orientation of the complex in relation to the azimuth of sunlight towards the south with a northwest-southeast extension, which is exposed to an average of the maximum amount of solar radiation energy and its optimal value. Due to the gradual construction of the complex, the high density and height of the buildings has caused the creation of passages and two courtyards with a small width, which has reduced the area of the movement field of unfavorable winds, shading the openings on hot days and causing a lot of failure in the passages. The use of mud-brick in the construction of walls and the creation of a flat covering of wooden beams with a large thickness, which has a high capacity and thermal delay, prevents the loss of heat on cold days and reduces the entry of heat from the outside into the interior of buildings on hot days. Installing openings in the northwest-southeast azimuth is an average of the maximum radiant heat (east) and optimal (east-west with south view) azimuths, and the amount of heat received from sunlight is suitable for hot and cold days of the year. Most likely, the doors and windows are closed on cold days. The construction of pillared porches in most buildings also played a role in adjusting the air inside. Applying these solutions in most of the hours from November to March, which is calculated as a total of 1632 hours, is not enough to ensure the thermal comfort of the residents of the complex, and heat production is needed.

Conclusion
Considering the great and well-studied achievements of the architects and master craftsmen of Persepolis in various architectural, technical and artistic fields, it is expected that they will have significant achievements in the field of adaptation of architecture to the environment and heating and cooling arrangements. Based on the analysis of the climatic conditions of Marvdasht Plain and the thermal comfort of its residents, it is more necessary to comply with the heating measures compared to the cooling measures in the architecture of a building in the mentioned area for climate adaptation and providing the thermal comfort of the residents. Natural heating measures include the use of heat from sunlight, which relieves the cold stress of the residents in some hours in the time range of October to April. The cooling arrangements also include shading on the openings and natural air ventilation, which provides thermal comfort to the residents from April to May and from September to October in some hours and in the middle days of the two mentioned periods at all hours of the day and night. There was no need for cooling during the year. In this collection, wall-mounted heaters similar to the examples of the third floor of Babajan Tepe Lorestan have not been identified. For this reason, it is likely that the inhabitants used portable metal fire-place similar to the Assyrian types and provided the necessary heat. Finally, the present research shows that the architects of Persepolis complex, as well as having mastered various architectural techniques, also had sufficient knowledge in relation to various aspects of climate adaptability and the adoption of heating and cooling measures in order to ensure the thermal comfort of the residents in different months of the year.

Abstract
Damage to cultural artifacts after discovery occurs due to various factors. One of these harmful cases is moisture originating from underground water, which appears as soil moisture, and over time, due to the oxidation process and the salts and ions in the water, as well as the incompatible pH of the environment with the texture and construction of the artifacts, it aggravates the process of destruction. In line with the mission of archaeometry as a bridge between archeology and other sciences, hydrogeology is used in this study in order to protect ancient artifacts. Iron Age Museum of Tabriz is located in the central area of the city and among the young Quaternary sediments that form the free aquifer of Tabriz. Underground water is one of the main factors causing corrosion and decay in the bones in this museum site. There are various solutions for lowering the water table locally, which according to the location coordinates and technical requirements of the site, the best method is to use underground water pumping. In this study, by using the available data in the study zone which is taken from the Tabriz urban train project and the data obtained from the Regional Water Company of East Azarbaijan, by using computer methods, the appropriate amounts of water pumping have been simulated according to the optimal water level drop and We define the placement of bones in a dry position. The use of new sciences for archeometric purposes is the main goal of this study and an attempt is made to solve the problem of destruction of ancient bones by establishing this connection.
Keywords: Conservation, Groundwater, Pumping Well, Soil Moisture, Tabriz Iron Age Museum.

Introduction
The discovery of ancient bones belonging to the Iron Age of the first and second millennium BC in the area of Tabriz Blue Mosque in 1997 is an important event in the field of archeology and ancient anthropology in Azarbaijan. When this ancient area has been discovered, studies have been carried out in the fields of dating about these bones and studies related to the origin and the migration (Kasiri, 2019) and the conservation and restoration of the graves in the Iron Age Museum area in 2016 was carried out by Majidi and Razani. In recent years, the effect of humidity on buried organisms in the soil has been the subject of many researchers’ studies. Soil moisture can play an important role in decomposition (Swift et al, 1979). Fluctuations of groundwater in the soil is one of the most important factors affecting microbial activity in the field conditions (Lund and Goksoyr, 1980). Iron Age Museum of Tabriz is located in the central area of this city and among the young Quaternary sediments that form the unconfined groundwater aquifer of Tabriz. Tabriz aquifer has an alluvial nature, which has expanded as a result of the Mehran Rood River flowing in its ancient path and creating numerous meanders during geological time. Hydrogeology as a new branch of earth sciences and engineering studies the condition, behavior and hydrological characteristics of the layers of the earth. As a porous environment, the basement contains soil grains, and the empty space between these grains can be saturated with water and provide a path for the flow of groundwater. The voracity of water movement in the basement compared to the surface currents is very low and varies from a few centimeters per year to several meters per day. Due to passing through various minerals and rocks, groundwater often has a significant amount of different solutes and has relatively high electrical conductivity (E.C). These solutes can cause a lot of damage to cultural works by sedimentation or crystallization in case of evaporation of groundwater. The climatic conditions of each region are different in the occurrence of damaging moisture factors and their effects in different seasons of the year (Nawai, 2016). The amount of humidity in the environment, which can cause destruction due to freezing with the participation of the temperature change parameter, will cause serious damage due to the transport of new solutes and sedimentation at each stage and the recrystallization of previous sediments. In addition to the above, the penetration of moisture through underground water can change the pH of the environment, and this change causes the destruction of cultural works by increasing the acidity.

Discussion
Iron Age Museum of Tabriz, as a result of its archaeological excavations, 108 graves were identified, based on the typology of pottery and metal artefacts and the method of burial and comparing them with the collections discovered from the excavations of Hassanlou Hill and Dinkhah Tepe, dating from around 1200 to 800 BC and the period of Iron Age I and II have been estimated for them, which of course is relatively consistent with the results of carbon 14 dating of these sites (Hojbari Nubri, 1381 and 1383). Its cultural, historical, social and economic nature, along with the aesthetic quality and historical and cultural importance of that area; The type of constituent materials and the composition and method of construction of the works found in it, the value, validity and information and messages hidden in those findings and how they are used are valuable documents of its cultural heritage collection. These works, mainly from archaeological excavations, have been obtained over several years, and their preservation in relatively inappropriate conditions has led to the progress of damage caused by the burial of these objects in the ground, and after a rather long period of time, they will disappear (Bagherzadeh Kasiri, 2016, 8). Based on the studies of Tabriz Urban Railway line 1, water level data is available near the study area of Asr Ahan Museum site, and according to the principle that the groundwater level almost follows the topography, it is possible to estimate the groundwater level in The location of the museum was found. For this purpose, the water level data was collected in the study boreholes near the study area (Table 8) and the map of the ISO lines of ground water in the study area was drawn (Fig. 10). It is necessary to explain that ISO lines or equipotential lines of groundwater are curves on each of these curves, the level of ground water has the same values and the map of parallel lines shows the changes of the level of ground water in the study area. It is possible to draw this type of map both manually and by using software that allows for interpolation and drawing. Next, modeling of groundwater drawdown due to pumping from the extraction well was done using GMS software version 16.4. For archeological stratification, before installing the drilling machine, a manual well should be dug to the desired diameter and to the depth of the ground water, and after reaching the depth of the underground water, the drilling machine will continue drilling from inside this well until it hits The stone should be foamed.

Conclusion
The Iron Age Museum site of Tabriz is one of the prominent sites in the northwest of the Iran, which is facing major problems due to the groundwater infiltration. This research uses information and data of the studies of the aquifer of this region with taking account to the problem of how to intervene in the ancient sites. It has provided a solution to deal with the problem of groundwater in order to reduce its flow, and in this regard, by introducing the place of preliminary evaluations using speculation and Finally suggests a piezometric well to start working in this area and control the groundwater level. Noting that the change of seasons and amount of rainfall can affect the condition of groundwater to some extent; Therefore, by changing the flow rate and duration of pumping, other values of drawdown can be achieved. For this reason, it is suggested that if the plan is implemented, a piezometer well should be drill as close as possible to the museum site so that the condition of the groundwater as well as the amount of its draw done due to pumping from the extraction well can be under immediate control. To prevent the water used in the green space and other uses of the museum site from returning to the area of ancient graves, drainage channels should be used between the area and the main space of the museum.

Abstract
Predictive models are a component of GIS-based statistical approaches, which hold an important place in archaeological research due to advances in relevant theories and tools. Predictive models, developed through the statistical processing and analysis of environmental variables that influence site location, aid in understanding the cultural and natural landscape of the study area and contribute to the development of plans for improved cultural heritage management. This article, employing a statistical-analytical approach and data from archaeological surveys, aims to present a predictive model for a part of the eastern Kurdistan region where archaeological surveys have not yet been conducted. Prediction modelling was performed using the MaxEnt machine learning method, with eleven factors as natural variables and presence data (areas) required for modelling. The model area was divided into two experimental sections (Bijar and Dehgolan) and a prediction area (Qorveh), as the prediction model for Qorveh city was based on the natural variables and presence data from Bijar and Dehgolan cities. Finally, the prediction map was divided into four classes: very high, high, medium, and low suitability areas. The very high suitability area, which comprises 10% of the total model area, contains 59% of the Iron Age sites in eastern Kurdistan. It was found that vegetation cover, land use, and distance from rivers were among the most influential factors in the model. Also, the initial data in Qorveh indicate that 62% of the sites are located in an area comprising 8% with very high desirability, supporting the accuracy of the prediction. The AUC statistic is 0.836, and the finding value for the model has been calculated as 0.82, which indicates a prediction model with an approach value close to 1.
Keywords: Archaeological Prediction Model, GIS, MaxEnt, Eastern Kurdistan, Iron Age.

Introduction
The use of GIS and statistical modelling to map possible locations of archaeological sites has increased over the past decades. (Stefan & Sîrbu, 2010; Niknami et al., 2007; Alirezaei et al., 2019). Currently, archaeological prediction models are a powerful tool for preventing natural and human damage to historical and cultural resources (Danese et al., 2014), and for increasing the efficiency of archaeological field activities and cultural heritage management (Howard et al., 2016; Balla et al., 2014). Statistical modelling, as a perspective for identifying suitable areas for selecting prehistoric settlements, has been widely used by geographers and archaeologists (Sharafi et al., 2016; Verhagen & Dragut, 2012; Kaimaris, 2018). This method can be effectively considered a form of archaeological exploration. This paper aims to develop a concept for creating a prediction model using the MaxEnt method in the Eastern part of Kurdistan, to evaluate similar studies in archaeology, and to determine settings and suggest ways to optimise such approaches. Simultaneously, using a statistical approach based on GIS, the prediction model, and archaeological survey data from the eastern part of Kurdistan, it identifies the most favourable locations for the formation of Iron Age settlements. Accordingly, using environmental and archaeological data from Bijar and Dehgolan counties, a prediction model for Qorveh county has been developed using the MaxEnt method. Due to the lack of access to archaeological data for Qorveh County, the study area has been divided into two sections: experimental and prediction. This approach allows for predictions in the Qorveh region based on data from the experimental area (Bijar and Dehgolan counties), despite the absence of the required data. This method can thus be proposed as a study approach, with related recommendations, for another similar research.
Research Method: This research employed field and library (descriptive-analytical) methods, utilising the Geographic Information System (GIS) for the preparation and interpretation of GIS maps to analyse the settlement habitats of 96 Iron Age sites in eastern Kurdistan (Bijar, Qorveh, Dehgolan). The MaxEnt model was used to predict the distribution of Iron Age sites in eastern Kurdistan.

Data
The present study used a digital elevation model with a spatial resolution of 28 metres. Any change in these data will result in changes in climate, livelihoods, and other factors (Khosrowzadeh & Habibi, 2015: 109). The digital elevation model is used to extract new information such as slope, slope direction, and land curvature. This information is relatively common and significant, and is generally used in predictive models in archaeology. Land curvature data have also been used, which are defined as the rate of slope change (Whitworth, 2011: 469). The prediction model in this paper will be implemented using the principle of maximum entropy (MaxEnt). Such predictive modelling in archaeology requires two types of input data: environmental data (environmental variables that have a direct or indirect effect on the location of historical sites based on archaeological studies) and data related to archaeological sites, also known as presence data. The study area covers the political geography of Bijar, Qorveh, and Dehgolan counties. This study aims to make the most accurate prediction of Iron Age archaeological sites in Qorveh county using presence data (sites) from surrounding areas such as Bijar and Dehgolan counties. Given the similar climate and landscape in the eastern part of Iranian Kurdistan, the prediction of site formation locations in Qorveh County will be presented based on the MaxEnt prediction model.

Discussion
The final result of the prediction model for the eastern part of Kurdistan was based on the frequency ratio (FR) of the land cover and land use variables, which were among the most influential factors in the model. Their impact coefficients were estimated to be 24.3 and 32.6, respectively. Based on the classification of the forecast map, the low-desirability region covers the largest area within the forecast range, comprising 72% of the total. In contrast, better results can be observed due to the reduction in the area of regions in the high-desirability group. These regions, categorised as very high and high-desirability groups, comprise 10.5 percent and 7.5 percent of the total area, respectively. In contrast, it includes the largest number of areas, accounting for 89 percent of the total. These areas comprise 57 and 29 areas, respectively. While the areas with the highest potential are highlighted, they significantly reduce the area available for archaeological investigation.

Conclusion
MaxEnt modelling requires the use of presence data (areas). For this purpose, the prediction model is defined to include two categories of areas. First, the experimental area contains presence data (areas) as well as environmental factors and variables to configure the prediction model. Second: Prediction area; this section and perspective include the city of Qorveh in the eastern part of Kurdistan. The experimental area for this modelling contains 96 presence data points (areas) with an Iron Age chronology. Of these, 25% were used as test data and 75% as training data. Modelling with the MaxEnt method identifies the most influential variables by examining each one. Factors such as vegetation cover, land use, distance from the village, and distance from water sources are among the most influential variables on the model results. In this case, MaxEnt statistical analysis of other variables is also presented. Examination of the altitude variable shows that it has the greatest impact on sites within the altitude range of 1378–1400. The greatest impact of rivers on the sites occurred at a distance of 1000 metres. From 1000 to 3000 metres, the impact was least, but from 3000 to 5000 metres, the influence on site location became significant again. It has been found that at a distance of 2000 metres from villages, the likelihood of site formation is greater than at greater distances. The prediction map is divided into four groups based on the specified threshold value mentioned earlier: very high, high, medium, and low suitability areas. According to this division, the very high suitability area covers 10.5% of the total model area, and 59% of the sites (occurrence data) are located within this area. The high, medium, and low suitability areas include 30%, 6.5%, and 4.5% of the sites within these areas, respectively. Given that the very high and low suitability prediction areas are small but contain the largest percentage of sites, the model can be considered predictive.

Abstract
A series of field activities including two seasons of survey and excavation at the Shahneh Poshte cemetery of Babol on the northern slopes of the Alborz Mountains in central Mazandaran in 2018 and 2019 resulted in the discovery of a collection of human graves and burials scattered throughout this 11-hectare site. Due to the mass of destruction caused by unauthorized excavations in the cemetery, several disturbed graves were observed without any classifiable information. In contrast, by conducting scientific excavations in the 16 trenches, a total of 39 identifiable and Readable human burials were found and then the collection of information and archaeological findings related to each burial was recorded and classified. In this study, we attempt to answer questions about the existence of possible burial methods and patterns and the meaningful characteristics of these variables by studying a set of different aspects including burial practices such as the position and orientation of the body, position of face of hands, architectural structure of the graves, gender and age of skeletons, individual and group burials, and burials with and without objects. The results of absolute dating and comparative studies indicate that this cemetery belongs to a long time span from the 11th and 12th centuries BC (Iron I) to the 4th and 3rd centuries BC, i.e. the Achaemenid to the early Parthian period (Iron IV), and therefore cultural materials of this cemetery are comparable to intra-regional ancient sites in Mazandaran as well as trans-regional sites in the Gorgan Plain, the Central Plateau, and especially the Gilan region. Our research also shows that the Shahneh Poshte graves follow a specific pattern in some burial aspects including the supine position and the direction of the face to the south and therefore have long-term burial traditions. 
Keywords: Shahneh Poshte Cemetery, Burial Practices, Iron Age, Mazandaran, Cultural Communications.

Introduction
The Shahneh Pashte cemetery is located adjacent to village of Kamikola and southwest of the Khoshrudpey city and 21 kilometers south of the Babol (Fig. 1) (Saedian, 2014: 321). This cemetery was excavated over two seasons in 2018 and 2019 by Hassan Fazeli Nashli. The result of these excavations was the identification of 39 human burials in situ (28 graves) (Fig. 2) which provide a set of valuable archaeological data such as absolute and relative dating, burial methods including the position and orientation of the bodies and faces, the position of the hands and the structure of graves. Based on the whole of archaeological data, the site can be dated to the late 2nd millennium B.C (late Iron I) to the mid-1st millennium B.C (Iron IV, 3rd - 4th centuries B.C / Achaemenid to early Parthian). More precisely, the absolute dating on 5 skeletons uphold this period. Based on archaeological studies between 39 burials, 29 burials belong to the late Iron I (late 2nd millennium BC) to Iron III (burials 1-11 and 22-39) are called “Iron age I - III Group” and the other 10 burials (burials 12-21) can be dated to the 4th and 3rd centuries B.C (late Achaemenid to early Parthian) that are called “Iron age IV Group”, considering the absolute dates of the two burials and their spatial relationship.

Discussion
The study of the Shahneh Poshte burials shows that a set of methods were used to place the deceased in grave which are divided into two general categories: lying on the sides and supine. These two general modes include a total of 11 sub-modes. In general, in the entire Iron Age in this site (I-IV), the lying on the sides includes 13 burials (33.3%) including 4 burials on the right and 9 burials on the left, supine 15 burials (38.5%) and also 11 burials (28.2%) lack any recognizable signs. In more detail, during the Iron I-III period, there were 8 contracted burials (28% of total) of which 4 were on the right and 4 on the left. In addition, 12 burials (41% of total) were buried in supine. Also, 9 burials (31% of total) were of unknown status. In the Iron IV, there were 5 contracted burials (50% of total) all of which were on the left and no right-sided burials were found. Moreover, 3 burials (30% of total) were buried in supine. Finally, 2 burials (20% of period) were classified as undetermined burials due to extensive damages (Fig. 3-5). Regarding the position of the hands of the skeletons, during the Iron I-IV, a total of 16 positions were observed which can be classified into three general groups: lying on the sides, supine and unknown. In addition, the first group includes 6 subgroups (25% of all), the second group is divided into 9 subgroups (54% of all) and the third group is divided into 9 cases (21% of all) as unknown (Fig. 6-7). In Shahneh Poshte, three types of grave architecture have been identified. The first is a simple pit, second is a simple pit with a clay cover and the third is a pithos. Of the 28 graves in site, 26 graves (93% of all) are simple oval pits, of which 20 graves belong to the Iron I-III (71.6%) and 6 graves (21.4%) belong to the Iron IV. The second method, a simple pit covered with big clay fragments includes only 1 is from Iron Age I-III (3.5% of total). Also the pithos burial consists of only 1 grave (3.5% of total) from Iron Age IV (Fig. 8-10). In terms of gender and age of the deceased in this cemetery, total of 9 burials (23% of all) were identified as male, including 8 burials (27.6%) in Iron I-III and 1 burial (10%) in Iron IV. In addition, there were 14 burials (36% of total) as female including 12 burials (27.6%) in Iron I-III and 2 burials (20%) in Iron IV. Also, of the total burials, 16 burials (41% of total) were disturbed (Fig. 11-17). In addition, 7 different positions of the bodies were identified in relation to geographical directions including: south-north 5% of all, east-west 2.5%, west-east 23%, northeast-southwest 10.5% of all, southwest-northeast 10.5%, southeast-northwest 10.5%, northwest-southeast 15% and also an unknown direction 23% of all burials (Fig. 18-19). It is worth noting that for the orientation of face, during all periods, the dominant method was the south direction with a total of 23% of all burials, and especially 20.5% of all in Iron I-III, it was certainly the most common burial method. It seems that this method was not a priority in the Iron IV and was used less often. After that, the north direction was the most common method with 15.3% including 10.2% in Iron IV and 5.1% in Iron I-III (Fig. 20-21). Regarding other study characteristics, 67.8% of the total graves are individual and 32.2% are group graves. Among the first group, 53.5% of the total is related to Iron I-III and 14.6% are related to Iron IV. In addition, group graves comprise 32.2% of the total graves of which 621.5% are related to Iron I-III and 310.5% are related to Iron IV (Fig. 22-25). Finally, about the possession of objects, in total, 70% of all burials were buried with burial objects and 30% did not contain any goods (Fig. 26-27). Finally, regarding the amount of possession of objects, in total, 27 burials (70% of all) were buried with burial objects, and only 12 burials (30% of total) did not contain any burial objects or grave goods.

Discussion 
Human skeletons in Shahneh Poshte cemetery are mostly buried in individual and group graves, including 28 graves which mostly include simple pits, one case of a simple pit with a clay cover and one pithos. In fact, the architectural of the graves was mostly in form of simple pits. A simple pit grave with a clay cover is quite unique in this site and a similar the grave has apparently been found only in one grave in the Lefork cemetery of Savadkuh which has been dated to Iron Age III (Abedini, 2017: 154). Third group of tombs is pithos type that has many similar older and contemporary examples in Mazandaran county. Among the numerous similar examples in the Iron Age of Mazandaran, can mention the children’s tombs in Gohar Tepe (Piller and Mahfroozi, 2009: 19) and cemetery Amirkola in Savadkuh (Abedini, 2017: 154), as well as Qaleh Kuti I cemetery (Fukai and Ikeda, 1971: Pl. XIX, Fig. 2) and Kaluraz in Gilan (Fahimi, 2002: 106-107), Tepe Gyan (Contenau and Girshman, 1935: 12), Maral Tepe of Uzbeki (Majidzadeh, 2008: 135-136) and Dinkhah Tepe (Muscaerella, 1974: 75). In addition, this method reached its peak of use during the Parthian period such as Taq bustan in Kermanshah (Kambakh Fard, 1998: 45), Liarsang-Ben cemetery in Gilan (Jahani et al., 2023: 38; Jahani et al., 2018: 114), and especially in the central Zagros basin (Mohammadi Far and Hojabari Nobari, 2004) such as Sanandaj (Khosravi et al., 2018: 317), Marivan (Mohammadi Far and Sarraf, 2006; Masoumian and Rahimi-Galugahi, 2012: 428) and several points in the city of Hamadan and its surrounding areas (Azarnoush, 1975: 56, vol. 7; Dailer et al., 2013). The graves of Shahneh Poshte are scattered in different parts of the cemetery and it does not seem that a specific space of the cemetery was dedicated to a specific group or class of people in this society. The group graves are in the form of two-burial and three-burial graves with a slight difference in depth and space compared to each other, although the attribution of some of these group burials to each other has been ambiguous. However, the spatial proximity of the skeletons and their burial objects and the difficulty in distinguishing them from each other led to the attribution of some of them to a single grave and it seems that even despite a slight difference in depth, there was a clear awareness in creating a single grave for multiple skeletons. Usually, the deceased were placed in the grave in various positions, either contracted (lying on their sides) or supine with different positions inclined to the right or left. The positions of the hands are usually in front of the chest and face and sometimes in line with the body and the legs are also bent in three different degrees: less than a 90-degree angle (high, inclined inward towards the abdomen and spine: grade 1), 90-degree angle (medium, perpendicular angle to the spine: grade 2), and more than 90-degree angle (low, open angle to the spine: grade 3). A few are also supine and extended in line with the body.

Conclusion
The study of the burials of the Shahneh Poshte cemetery shows that there were a group of methods and rituals related to the burial of the dead, some of which were used more than others and, in other words, became a burial tradition. Regarding the position of the dead during the Iron Age and during the use of this cemetery, all the conventional methods of placing the deceased in the grave were used in the Shahneh Poshte area and despite the slightly higher number of supine method, it does not have a significant advantage over the lying on sides method and both methods can be seen as burial methods and traditions in great abundance. Also, the supine method was the most common burial method among women with 71% and men did not have any dominant method. In the discussion of the architectural structure of the tomb, the common tradition and method, the usual method is a simple oval pit but there are two unique methods, one is a simple pit grave covered with pottery fragments and the other is a pithos burial, each of which was used in the form of a grave only as a specific method, not a burial tradition. Finally, based on the set of burial characteristics of the Shahneh Poshte cemetery, it can be seen that this site is comparable in many aspects to sites within the region in Mazandaran and adjacent the region especially Gilan and the Central Plateau. It can also be considered that the set of burial methods and traditions of the Shahneh Poshte cemetery is homogeneous and identical to other contemporary sites in Mazandaran and to some extent a continuation of some pre-Iron Age burial methods in this region.