Abstract
The special conditions of the Qajar period have made it possible for Europeans to obtain Iranian carpets more than before. During this period, Europeans interested in Iranian rugs took advantage of the unique opportunities available to them to create, develop, and complete the assets of their rug collections in the best way. Familiarity with the fields of creating these opportunities on the one hand and knowledge of European strategy regarding the acquisition of Iranian carpets in this period are among the important and contemporary issues and concerns of carpet studies and of course museum studies and can complete our knowledge in this field. Accordingly, this article intends to follow the most important methods and strategies of Europeans in acquiring and owning Iranian rugs to identify and introduce the factors affecting their access to these rugs and their storage. In fact, in this research, we want to know what factors were involved in the formation of the process of collecting Qajar rugs by Europeans. For this purpose and to find the answer to this question, in this article, we have used the descriptive-analytical research method. We also collected our data in a library method and used a qualitative method to analyze them. Findings and results of this study indicate that the tradition of offering rugs to ambassadors and European courts on the one hand and the rugs export industry of this period have been the most important traditional factors in collecting valuable Iranian rugs by Europeans. Also, due to the cultural changes and modernization of the Qajar kings, especially Nasser al-Din Shah, and the welcome to participate in the famous international exhibitions of the nineteenth century is also one of the newest methods and facilities of European carpet collecting in this period. 
Keywords: Persian carpets, Qajar period, Carpet Collection, European collections.

Introduction
The special conditions of the Qajar period had made it possible for Europeans to obtain Iranian carpets more than before. During this period, Europeans interested in Iranian carpets took advantage of the unique opportunities available to them to create, develop and complete the assets of their carpet collections. Today, one of the topics of concern and contemporary concerns in carpet studies is getting acquainted with the fields of creating these opportunities on the one hand and becoming aware of the facilities and methods used by Europeans about Iranian carpets on the other hand. Just as the quantity and quality of the presence of Iranian carpets in European collections and museums is important, so are the factors influencing the transfer of these carpets and the manner in which they were taken over by the Europeans.
Therefore, this article intends to follow the most important methods and possibilities of Europeans in acquiring and possessing Iranian carpets in the Qajar period to identify and introduce the effective factors in their acquisition and storage of these carpets. In order to achieve this goal, in order to explain this issue in principle, the contents of this article were organized under two general sections. At the beginning and in the first part of the article, the role of the court tradition of donating carpets to ambassadors and European courts, which has been common, in examining Iranian carpets to European collections, was examined. On the other hand, in the continuation of this section, the contribution of the carpet export industry to the prosperity of European collections was studied and analyzed. Here, the role of Iranian merchants in transporting carpets to Europe was mainly discussed. In the second part of the article, the effect of international exhibitions on increasing popularity and subsequently expanding the desire of Europeans to own Iranian carpets was discussed. International exhibitions are considered a relatively new phenomenon that the holding of these events facilitated and accelerated the development of Iranian carpet collections in Europe even more than the previous factor.
This article has been written using descriptive-analytical research method and has collected its data by library method. The statistical population is based on books, articles, catalogs and some related documents that have been analyzed qualitatively.

Discussion
This article tried to follow the most important methods and possibilities of Europeans in acquiring and possessing Iranian rugs in the Qajar period, to identify and introduce the factors influencing their access to and storage of these rugs. To achieve this goal, and to explain the principles of this issue, we have organized the contents of this article under two general sections. First, and in the first part of the article, we examined the role of the court tradition of donating rugs to ambassadors and European courts, which has been common, in finding Iranian rugs to European collections. 
On the other hand, in the continuation of this section, we have studied and analyzed the contribution of the rug export industry to the prosperity of European collections. Here we have mainly dealt with the role of Iranian traders in transporting rugs to Europe. In the second part of the article, we have discussed the effect that international exhibitions have had on increasing popularity and, consequently, expanding Europeans’ desire to own Iranian carpets. International exhibitions are a relatively new phenomenon and are specific to the Qajar period. Holding these events has facilitated and accelerated the development of Iranian rug collections in Europe even more than the previous factor. 

Conclusion
Numerous factors have paved the way for Europeans to embroider carpets during the Qajar period and their access to exquisite Iranian carpets. Items such as the tradition of offering carpets to European ambassadors and courts on the one hand, and the export of carpets by Iranian merchants on the other hand are among the most common and prevalent of these factors. Of course, during this period, in addition to embassies and European courts, their collections were also among the targets of these offerings. Museums such as Victoria and Albert have acquired excellent carpets in this way. Tabriz merchants have also played a special role in warming the Iranian carpet market in Europe. A significant part of Iranian carpet customers in Europe have been wealthy urban consumers. Although the carpets sent to these houses have in some cases been taken from private and public collections, the museum brokers have not neglected the Iranian carpet export markets and have started carpet weaving for their collections directly by purchasing these carpets. During this period, due to the development of exports, in addition to old and worn carpets, which were not originally woven for export purposes, new carpets were introduced that were woven specifically for presentation in European markets.
One of the unique ways of offering Iranian carpets in the Qajar period is attending international exhibitions in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. During this period, exhibitions were held in Vienna, London, Paris and Munich, in which Iranian carpets were also able to participate. Many of the rugs on display at these exhibitions belonged to the Safavid period. These carpets were more popular than the carpets of the Qajar period. Nevertheless, the carpets of both periods have attracted European customers. Many rugs were identified by Europeans by attending these exhibitions and were able to enter European collections and museums.

Abstract
The horse held a prominent role in the culture of Iran and Mesopotamia, both from mythological and practical perspectives. The aesthetic treatment of horse equipment, beyond its functional aspect, was an expression of reverence for both the horse and its rider. This study aims to identify and analyze the structure, design, and motifs of horse covers (Jul) in Iran and Mesopotamia during the period from 1906 to 330 BCE. The main research question investigates the distinctive structural and decorative characteristics of horse covers in this era. The necessity of this research arises from the fact that, despite the significance of the horse and its equipment in ancient civilizations, the aesthetic and structural aspects of ancient horse covers have rarely been examined in previous studies. Employing a descriptive-analytical method, the study is based on qualitative analysis of documentary data and archaeological evidence. The data were collected through systematic note-taking, and the statistical population includes all available examples- textile fragments, visual representations, and archaeological findings- through which the structure and design of the horse covers of this period can be identified and analyzed. The findings indicate that horse covers in Mesopotamia and Iran evolved from simple, utilitarian forms in the Assyrian period to more complex and decorative types during the Elamite, Median, and Achaemenid periods. Throughout this evolution, their structure developed in terms of size and composition, progressing from small, undecorated examples to large-scale pieces featuring organized and symmetrical animal and vegetal motifs. Beyond their decorative role, these motifs reflected the aesthetic sensibility and cultural values of their weavers. Technically, the use of both flat-weaving and knotted-pile techniques demonstrates a synthesis of functional traditions and advanced weaving skills of the time. Overall, the stylistic and structural evolution of horse covers (Jul) represents a gradual progression in technical mastery, structural precision, and aesthetic awareness, forming the foundation for the later development of carpet weaving.
Keywords: Horse Cover (Jul), Mesopotamia, Ancient Iran, Carpet Weaving, Design and Motif.

Introduction
The domestication of the second generation of horses (DOM2) between 4500 and 3000 BCE in the Pontic–Caspian Steppe marked a turning point in human civilization. These horses, which replaced the earlier and wilder DOM1 type, played a fundamental role in transportation, warfare, and the broader social, economic, and cultural transformations of ancient societies. Their introduction to Mesopotamia, likely during the Akkadian period and more certainly under the Third Dynasty of Ur (2112–2004 BCE), led to significant advances in equestrian technologies. From the Assyrian period (1906–609 BCE) onward, the full use of horse equipment—including harnesses, chariots, saddlecloths (jul), and bridles—became widespread, granting societies with improved horse breeds military and economic superiority and fostering extensive cultural diffusion across Eurasia.
In both Iran and Mesopotamia, the horse held an important place in mythology as well as in practical life—agriculture, warfare, hunting, and transport. The aesthetic treatment and adornment of the horse, including the weaving of the Jul (saddlecloth), reflected the reverence accorded to the animal and its rider. The Jul was a functional textile placed under the saddle to absorb sweat and protect the horse’s back while also ensuring the rider’s comfort and balance. These cloths, made from materials such as wool, cotton, leather, or silk, were produced in various techniques—knotted-pile, flat-woven, jajim, or felt—and were common among nomadic groups.
Archaeological and historical evidence from 1906 to 330 BCE (corresponding to the Assyrian, Elamite, Median, and Achaemenid periods) indicates that the use of horse saddlecloths was prevalent in Iran and Mesopotamia, though little is known about their structure, design, and motifs. This study adopts a descriptive–analytical approach based on documentary research, including textual, visual, and archaeological evidence. All available samples were examined using census sampling, and the data were analyzed qualitatively. The theoretical framework combines Gordon Child’s evolutionary–historical approach with Leroi-Gourhan’s perspective, enabling analysis of both the technical development and the symbolic and cultural dimensions of horse covers (Jul) in Mesopotamia and Iran.

Discussion
Analysis of Assyrian reliefs indicates that horse saddlecloths (Juls) of this period exhibited limited structural and decorative variation, and equestrian equipment was still in the early stages of development. None of the depictions show saddles, stirrups, or securing straps, suggesting that riders sat directly on the jul with their legs hanging freely. However, the finely carved details of the horse’s headgear, including bridles and bits, demonstrate notable technical refinement in this area. Two main types of Juls can be identified: the first, simpler type—likely made of leather or felt—features two flaps and three girth straps; the second, more elaborate type, structurally resembles modern examples and was probably used for ceremonial or ritual purposes. The designs and borders of this latter group are simple yet harmonious, with recurring motifs such as the four-pealed flower, which also appears on the king’s garments, suggesting symbolic correspondence. Technically, the precise weaving method remains uncertain, though evidence points to techniques derived from traditional floor-weaving practices such as pile or flat weaving. Overall, Assyrian juls reflect a transitional stage from purely functional horse gear toward a more aesthetic and symbolic approach in equestrian equipment.
The analysis of Elamite, Median, and Achaemenid Juls (horse saddlecloths) reveals significant stylistic and structural diversity compared to Assyrian examples, owing to a broader corpus that includes rhyta, reliefs, and two surviving woven pieces. Iranian Juls display a transition from purely functional coverings to highly aesthetic and symbolic works. The Rhyta from Maku and Susa (8th–7th centuries BCE) show large, body-covering Juls adorned with animal and floral motifs—dynamic scenes of leopards, ibexes, boars, birds, and trees—arranged symmetrically or diagonally, reflecting a free, pictorial compositional system distinct from the geometric order of Assyrian designs. In the Achaemenid silver Rhyton from Erebuni (5th century BCE) and a similar woven piece identified by Franses (2019), repeated ibex motifs, symmetry, and minimalism emphasize symbolic harmony rather than narrative complexity. This visual tradition continues in the Pazyryk carpet (5th–4th centuries BCE), where 23 visible Juls share a unified geometric structure: rectangular forms with serrated or tasseled edges, linear borders, and symmetrical, abstract designs suggesting both aesthetic refinement and technical mastery. Comparable Juls appear in the Apadana reliefs at Persepolis and the Greco-Persian sarcophagus from Çan, confirming the consistency of form—rectangular bodies with serrated tassels extending to the horse’s hindquarters—across centuries and regions. Collectively, these findings indicate that Iranian Juls evolved from simple utilitarian gear into intricate, symbolically charged textiles, bridging technical innovation with a distinct artistic vocabulary rooted in ancient weaving and decorative traditions.

Conclusion 
This study analyzes the structure, design, and production techniques of horse covers (Jul) from the Assyrian period to the end of the Achaemenid era (1906–330 BCE), demonstrating that in ancient Iran and Mesopotamia these textiles functioned as more than purely utilitarian objects. Over time, horse covers evolved into multilayered media for aesthetic expression, cultural identity, power relations, and technological advancement in textile production. The findings indicate that, beyond responding to technical and climatic needs, horse covers provided a platform for the manifestation of symbolic systems and visual imagination, serving as an intermediary between functional textiles and ritual carpets.
Comparative analysis of Assyrian and Iranian examples reveals that structural differences—particularly in size and extent of coverage—stem from the interaction of climate, function, and culture. Assyrian horse covers, limited mainly to the horse’s back, reflect a functional and minimalist approach, whereas the expanded coverage of Iranian examples enabled greater visual complexity and decorative development. In terms of design and motifs, the gradual transition from Assyrian geometric simplicity to the richness of Iranian animal and vegetal motifs marks the emergence of a coherent symbolic visual language, culminating in the motifs of the Pazyryk carpet.
The diversity of manufacturing techniques, including felting, leatherworking, flat weaving, and pile weaving, reflects both technical sophistication and a functional hierarchy in which pile-woven textiles held ceremonial and symbolic roles. Archaeological and visual evidence further indicates the social and political significance of horse covers, particularly during the Achaemenid period, when they became symbols of power and courtly display.
Within the theoretical framework, the findings align with Gordon Child’s evolutionary–historical approach and Leroi-Gourhan’s theory of the relationship between technique, body, and symbolic expression, positioning the horse cover as a liminal object between function, technology, and meaning. The study thus highlights the enduring role of horse covers in shaping ancient textile traditions and the visual culture of Iran.