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year 4, Issue 11 (6-2020)
One of the main types of rock monuments is hand-carved ritual-religious spaces. These handmade spaces have long been considered, sanctified and respected by religious social groups who were committed to religious practices. From this perspective, it can be stated that Maragheh region has been one of the most important, rich and long-lasting centers of ritual-religious architecture in the history and culture of Iran. In an era, in which ritual manmade spaces have lost their influence in many areas of ritual prosperity and sacred power, some ritual-religious manmade spaces in Maragheh still have an active and prominent presence. Accordingly, the present study, while identifying, introducing and explaining the special features of the ritual-religious hand-carved spaces of this region, has also addressed the formation factor of these ritual spaces; and seeks to answer the following question: to how many types are the ritual-religious hand-carved spaces in Maragheh divided? Therefore, along with the field study method applied for recording and explaining the current situation, library studies were also used to identify the factors influencing the formation of ritual-religious architecture in Maragheh. The results of the studies indicate that 8 religious-religious rock monuments have been identified in the county of Maragheh. Typologically, the above-mentioned rock architecture can be classified into surface and subsurface forms. Also, in terms of typology and classification of the application nature, these works have had different uses, such as: a) mosques, b) monasteries, c) churches, d) Buddhist temples, e) open temples, f) crypts, and h) rock graves. Many of these sites are now ruined, however, some spaces have retained their sacred position and are being used with some modifications.
Keywords: Maragheh, Rock Architecture, Typology, Ritual-Religious Use.
Introduction
The county of Maragheh is located in the northwestern part of Iran in the province of East Azerbaijan, on the southern slopes of Sahand Mountain. According to national divisions, the county of Maragheh has two districts (central and Sarajo) and six villages. The county of Maragheh consists of two separate parts: the northern areas of the county that are mountainous and the central and southern areas which consist of plains and flatlands (Khamachi, 1991: 459). Sahand mountainous mass is one of the most important topographic features of the county, and the southern slopes of this mountain form the configuration of the main part of the county. The general slope of the land in this county is from north to south and the three rivers of Leylan Chay, Mordagh Chay, and Sufi Chay are the important rivers that supply the water needed by the region (Morvarid, 1981: 12).
In the county of Maragheh, numerous historical monuments are remained from different periods, some of which are used as ritual-religious hand-carved spaces. Ritual-religious hand-carved spaces in Maragheh, in particular and other areas in general, have long been considered, sanctified and respected by social groups, according to the existing evidence; Therefore, in this paper, it has been attempted to explain the formation factor, analyze the use nature of spaces and the period in which they have been applied using the a spatial archeological approach and archeological surveys after introducing the ritual hand-carved spaces. The current research has been conducted in order to answer this fundamental question: to how many types are the ritual-religious hand-carved spaces in Maragheh divided? Moreover, the purpose of this study is to investigate and analyze the typology of the mentioned hand-carved spaces.
Methods: The present study has been conducted using a descriptive-analytical method and data collection has been performed using library methods and field visits from a large number of hand-carved spaces in different parts of the county of Maragheh.
The Significance and Necessity of Research: The rocky and cave nature of worship places and the study limitations of the ritual-religious hand-carved spaces in Iran have caused any religious hand-carved spaces to be associated with Mithraism; however, little evidence of Mithraism has been identified in these sacred spaces. Accordingly, by conducting studies on the ritual-religious hand-carved architecture in the county of Maragheh, it is possible to provide a comprehensive classification of this type of architecture and determine the general appearance and nature of their spaces in this region.
Research Question and Hypotheses: The current research has been conducted in order to answer this fundamental question: to how many types are the ritual-religious hand-carved spaces in the county of Maragheh divided? One of the hypotheses that can be proposed in the present study is that the ritual-religious spaces of Maragheh have been formed in two periods: the first period is related to the pre-Islamic period, which was influenced by the Urartian culture. The second period is related to the Islamic period. In the Islamic period, the greatest influence in shaping these spaces has been the influence of beliefs from eastern cultures, especially Buddhists and Christians.
Conclusion
Hand-carved architecture is a special type of architecture that has been created by humans in order to adapt themselves to their environment. In the extensive territory of Iran, due to climatic, ritual and cultural diversity, remnants of this type of architecture can be seen in its different regions. One of the important reasons for the tendency of human beings in different schools towards the rock architecture was the ritual and religious structure of the society, which required turning to rocks and mountains. In the meantime, the ritual-religious hand-carved spaces of the county of Maragheh have been a manifestation of the spiritual life and cultural knowledge of the residents of this region. These spaces have a special place in the whole beliefs of the residents of the region; this has made the decorative elements, architecture and special location of these spaces to be different from other rock works. Following what has been discussed in the text of the paper, the results of library and field studies of hand-carved spaces have demonstrated the influence of ritual and religious structures of Maragheh society in the formation of some of these spaces. Due to the special geographical location of Maragheh region throughout history, the region has witnessed different ethnic groups and special religious beliefs. According to this view, the ritual-religious spaces of the region in the pre-Islamic ages have been created in the form of hand-carved burial spaces (crypts); and in the Islamic period, these spaces have been mostly carved into rock contexts in the form of hand-carved worship temples.
In the mid-Islamic eras, especially during the Ilkhanid period, Maragheh was the center of various beliefs and this factor has formed the basis for the formation of ritual-religious spaces of Buddhist, Christian and Islamic followers. From this perspective, the county of Maragheh, especially on the banks of Sufi-Chay River, is one of the lively, active, and rich centers of tradition and ritual hand-carved heritage. Accordingly, most of the investigated worship spaces are concrete, objective and real manifestations of the cultural-religious continuity and spiritual life of the people of this region from the Ilkhanid period, and even today some of these places have retained their sacred and ritual status.
year 4, Issue 12 (8-2020)
Bavanat county, in Fars province, is very important in terms of mining activities, most of the active mines of Fars region are located in this county. Although various studies have been done by geologists in recent years in order to develop new mines as well as the role of mines in sustainable development, but in terms of archeology and ancient mining has been neglected, the only exception is the work of Emami and Bamshad in introducing only two mines. In 2015, an archaeological survey was conducted on Mazayjan and Markazi district which resulted in the identification of 200 sites from Neolithic to late Islamic period, in which 4 mines and 4 slag sites were identified. Since the survey of Bavanat county has not been fully done, more sites can be recognized by a comprehensive survey in this county by focusing on the identification of mines and sites related to ancient metalworking. The role of the ancient mining in the formation of settlements during different periods can also be investigated. The study of the relationship between natural resources and how they are extracted, used, exchanged and traded by ancient peoples will be fundamental and vital in archaeological studies. Recognizing the process of the metalworking industry will lead to clarification of the relationship between different stages in this cycle and a better understanding of the socio-economic effects of this industry in the context of cultural and historical developments in the Bavanat region. The current study tries to identify the evidence related to the cycle of metalworking industry by focusing on the results of the archaeological fieldworks in the Mazayjan district. What are the extracted metals and how was the extraction cycle? It seems that most of these mines were used to extract copper and iron metals. In this regard, the questions are about the background of the metalworking and mining industry in this area, what kinds of metal were extracted in this area, and how was the cycle of extraction and smelting process in the region, that appears the most of the mines have been exploited for copper and iron ore. Although little surface evidence has been found to date, a few pottery finds indicate the history of the Islamic and possibly Sassanid period.
Keywords: Fars, Mazayjan, Mining and Ancient Metallurgy, Smelting Technology.
Introduction
Bavanat county is located in the northeast of Fars province and consists of two Districts: central and Mazayjan. From the north and east, Bavanat is bordered by Abarkouh and Marvast in Yazd Province, by Sarchahan County in the south, by Safashahr County in the northwest. Khataban Mountain, with a height of 3482 m above sea level, has the highest altitude in the region, while the lowest altitude location is in the Marvast Plain with a height of 1670 m above sea level. Overall, the region has high altitudes and several water resources and drainage basins, such as rivers, springs, and streams. The most important water source in this region is the Bavanat River, which has a main role in the formation of the settlements. The Bavanat River flows from the northwest to the southeast. Two mountain ranges are located along other sides of the basin, and their arête is the water division line of this and other adjacent basins. The width of the valley is narrow, around 5 km, in the northwest, but widens to more than 10 kilometers in the southeast near Monj Village. In terms of geographical location, as this region is the border between the mountainous regions of Fars and desert regions of Yazd, the border separates two landscapes, making it particularly important. The first season of the survey was conducted in April and May 2015. It is attempted to determine the studied region according to natural geographical range without considering new political borders. To this end, Bavanat River Basin which is located in two central and Mazayjan parts of this county was fully investigated. Archeological research was carried out in a survey and intensive way to identify all sites and relics that reflect the activities of past human societies in the region.Four ancient mines and several places that the existence of metal slag indicates metallurgy extraction were identified as well.
The study of the relationship between land resources and how they are extracted, used, exchanged and traded by ancient peoples will be essential in archaeological studies. In this regard, the study of metal exploration, extraction of ore in different periods is of particular importance. The increasing development of new mining activities will lead to the destruction of a large part of the ancient mines, in this instance; almost the ancient mines of Jian are destroyed and the Rubang mine is being destroyed, in this case, with proper documentation and introduction of mines, this ancient heritage can be protected as much as possible. Due to the importance of paying attention to ancient mines, the present study was conducted in order to identify and understand the production cycle of ancient mining and metalworking in the Mazajan district of Bavanat county.
Identified Traces
Stein conducted brief surveys and exploration in Bavanat (Stein, 1936). Furthermore, Helwing and Askari investigated a number of sites in Monj as part of the ICAR survey in the Marvsat Dam basin (Helwing, 2007). The importance of this issue motivated us to conduct archaeological surveys in the central district and Mazayjan Rural District of Bavanat in 2015. During the research for this survey, 200 sites that dated from the Neolithic period to the late Islamic era were registered. These sites include mounds and ancient sites, historical castles, historical places of worship, mosque, bridge, cemetery, mill, petroglyph, ancient mines, and slag site. Four ancient mines and several places that the existence of metal slag indicates metallurgy extraction were identified as well.
Today, economically, mining-related activities in the Bavanat region have given it a privilege to be considered as a center in the country. Archaeological studies show that in the past, mining and metal mining have played a significant role in the economic and social structures and the formation of settlements.
Conclusion
Bavanat county has always been considered in terms of mining due to its geographical location, but so far it has not received much attention in terms of archeology and ancient mining. Archaeological survey conducted in 2015 and led to the identification of four mines and four slag sites, the main identified mines are related to copper and iron.
Extraction from mines includes two methods of underground extraction through tunnel digging and surface extraction through tracking of mineral lode in the ground. In Bavanat region, we only see surface extraction, so that miners have found natural lode on the ground and followed in a mine like Rubang, it has become a tunnel or the volume and width of the veins, such as Kan Gohar cave, are high, and by extracting them, today we are witnessing a change in the topography of this part of the mountain.
At the end, it should be noted that archaeological surveys in this area have not been completed in full, certainly with a comprehensive and targeted survey can identify many more mines and industrial sites in this area.
year 6, Issue 22 (2-2023)
Abstract
Abstract: Wood has been a suitable raw material for the expression of taste, talent, art and creativity of craftsmen and artists in different periods. Iranian artists in the Islamic period, like other industries, have created the most exquisite artworks made of wood. During the Islamic period, in the construction of the architectural elements of religious buildings, such as wood turning, fret work, Gereh Chini, and Khatam’s artworks were made of wood, which studying on them in terms of the evolution and transformation of wood-related industries as material and cultural remains of the Islamic period, as well as analyzing the themes of their religious motifs and inscriptions, has been of special importance. Considering the importance of this subject, not many studies have been conducted in this field of research. During the archaeological survey that was carried out in 2014 in order to identify the cultural historical monuments of Bavanat city, many wooden artworks were identified and observed, and the upcoming research is in line with the introduction and analysis of these findings. In this regard, the questions of this research are: What wooden artworks have been left from the Islamic period of Bavanat, and what are the decorative elements and themes of their inscriptions? From Jame Mosque of Bavanat and holy shrine of Hamzeh of Bazm, various hand-made wooden structures have remained, including doors, windows, pulpits, and wooden latticework, the delicacy and proficiency in their construction are remarkable. Since the two studied buildings, the mosque and holy shrine, have religious uses the general inscriptions also included Quranic verses, Shahadatein, Shahadat-e Salaseh, Salavat and the names of the Imams, which shows the influence of Shia religion on the industry and art of this period.
Keywords: Islamic Period, Bavanat, Fret Work, Gereh Chini, Pulpit.
Introduction
Wooden objects due to their nature, in most cases, after losing their functions, are used as fuel for the fire, which is one of the main factors that makes the findings of this industry very rare. Unfortunately, not many studies have been done on Iran’s wood industries, and the studies that have been done are case-based studies. The wooden artworks in the Jame Mosque of Shiraz, which belongs to the period of Amr-i Laith Saffari (first half of the third century A.H.), can be considered one of the oldest artworks of wood crafts left in Iran (Mehrpooya, 1997: 197). From the 6th century A.H., wooden artworks such as the pulpit of Mashkol village in Ardabil province with the construction dating back to 541 AH (Maleki Galandouz & Mohammadi, 2012), The wooden door of Bayazid Bastam Mosque dated 707 to 709 A.H., the pulpit in Jame Mosque of Nain with the date of 711 A.H., the wooden Qur’an stand in the Metropolitan Museum dated to 761 A.H., the coffin (box) of Hazrat-e Abdol Azim shrine (Mehrpooya, 1997: 200; Blair & Bloom, 2002, 54; Dimand, 2004: 123). With the beginning of the Safavid period, many produced works of art were mostly included wooden doors with geometric and limited animal decorations, Sash Windows (Orosi), wooden frames of the ceiling, wooden columns, wooden latticework, coffins, wood inlayand fret work. (Attarzadeh,1995: 18; Dimand, 2004: 125, Sedighiyan & Sadeghi, 2013: 59). During the archaeological survey in Bavanat in 2014, various wooden crafts were observed, which shows the taste and art of this region in the production of wooden artworks. Although the background of this art in this region is not very clear, through historical sources, we can understand the centrality of this region in the Qajar period. In the book “Cities and Trade of Iran in the Qajar Period” by Keith Edward Abbott, he has mentioned the products of the Bavanat wood industry. Considering the importance of wooden crafts among the visual arts and the role of themes of inscriptions in understanding the thoughts of religious beliefs of the Islamic era, in this paper, an attempt is made to investigate and introduce the wooden artworks of this region.
Archaeological Survey of Bavanat
Bavanat city is located in the northeast of Fars province with Bavanat city as its center. Following the surveys in different regions of Iran in the 1930s, Stein made brief surveys and sounding in Bavanat (Stein, 1936). Following the survey of the Marvast Dam basin, Helwing and Askari Chavardi visited several sites of Monj in 2006 (Helwing, 2007). The first season of the archaeological survey of this area took place in April and May 2014. During the survey, 200 findings were documented, which can be dated from the Neolithic period to the late Islamic period which includes Tappeh and ancient sites, historical castles, ritual places of the historical period, mosques, bridges, cemeteries, mills, rock carvings, ancient mines and sites of slags (Khanipour et al., 2018).
Bavanat Wood Industries
Bavanat wooden crafts include wooden containers or vessels discovered from Kan Gohar Cave, pulpit and wooden door of the Grand Mosque, latticework, doors and windows of holy shrine of Hamzeh, which will be discussed further.
Jame Mosque of Bavanat: This building is located in the center of Bavanat city, which is built in two floors. The mosque has a circular dome, which is located above Mihrab, and under the dome is an inscription of Quranic verses in Thuluth, with decorations, the script of which is the work of Mohammad Isfahani and dated 772 A.H., The delicate decorations used in the construction of the wooden pulpit of this mosque, and according to the inscription on it, have turned this historical work into one of the unique examples of Iran’s wooden arrays in the 8th century A.D. There is an inscription on the pulpit with the name of the founder and the date of its construction. this pulpit was built in 771 A.H. (Sarikhani, 2007: 63; Khanipour et al., 2021: 16-17). The wooden entrance door of the mosque is in the eastern wall, which according to the inscription dates its construction to the Safavid period.
Holy Shrine of Seyyed Shah Mirhamzeh
Holy Shrine of Seyyed Shah Mirhamzeh has located 18 km from Bavanat city, in Bazm village. This building was first included in the list of national monuments in 1936. latticework of holy shrine of Bazm is very artistically carved in wood. This latticework is decorated with relief carvings on three sides, and two inscriptions are engraved on it, indicating the name of the builder and the date of construction. On the door of latticework, there are poems indicating that it was written during the reign of Shah Abbas. The entrance door of holy shrine of is double-leaf, on top of both there is an inscription and in the middle of each one, there is a metal knocker. The outer surface is decorated with rhombus diagonal lines on each leaf of the door. The wooden door inside the holy shrine of is double-leaf that are decorated with Moaragh-kari. The door frame is carved with geometric motifs, which according to the construction, color, and type of wood, the construction of the double-leaf door is probably newer than the door frame and facade.
Kan-Gohar Cave
Kan-Gohar cave mine is located at the heights of the southern border of Bavanat Plain. In 2010, a large number of human bones and skulls, which were regularly placed there, were discovered by the residents of the region. To clarify the issue, first of all, historical sources were studied. In the historical sources, it is mentioned, after the collapse of the Ilkhanid patriarchal government and the lack of centralized power, a village in Bavanat was attacked and the villagers took refuge in a cave to save their lives. Their hiding place was revealed, so a fire was lit at the entrance of the cave, and in the resulting smoke, all the people inside the cave were killed. Some sources mention Malik Ashraf Choupani (Yazdi, 1947: 153-154; Katbi, 1985: 48-49, Samarqandi, 1996: 212) and some Ray Malik (Hafiz Ebru, 1938: 172; 1993: 206-208) as the cause of this murdering. A tray, a bowl and a wooden spoon were found in this cave, along with the existing burials, which were probably part of the dishes of these people that they took with them to the cave.
Conclusion
In the Bavanat area, there are wooden works from the 8th, 10th and 11th centuries A.H. The wooden artworks of the Kan-Gohar cave have been preserved due to their location inside the cave, and the wooden works of the Grand Mosque and holy shrine of have been preserved due to their holiness. Among the various methods of production and decoration of the wood industry, in the Bavanat region, we can observe fret work, woodturning, Gereh-Chini and Moaragh-Kari, which more than fret work is used. In terms of the function of the wooden handicrafts studied in this article, they can be divided into two categories: architecture-related necessities and everyday utensils or objects. In the construction of wooden crafts, geometric patterns and Eslimi, and in most cases, inscriptions are written on them. The read inscriptions, which are generally located on wooden artworks, were in line with the function of the buildings. In the meantime, during the Safavid period, emphasis is placed on the names of Shia imams, especially Imam Ali.
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