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Mohammad-Sadegh Davari, Hamed Hoseini Dolat-Abadi, Hasan Kamali Dolat-Abadi,
year 3, Issue 10 (2-2020)
year 3, Issue 10 (2-2020)
Abstract
Abstract
Lowdaricheh is a neighborhood in the town of Burkhar 9 km north of Isfahan. This monument is adjacent to the ancient cemetery, which has become a receational spot today. The northwest-southeast direction of the momument and its plan is a quadrilateral that later interferes. Due to its location 4 kilometers east of the historic city of Gaz (with settlements from the Parthian and Sassanid periods), the study of this building is important in its historical-cultural context. In this regard, while taking advantage of the archaeological survey of the Lowdaricheh quadrangle, it provided a relative understanding of the history of its construction and it’s use and as a basis for future comparative and comparative studies in the area, as one of the first studies of archaeological activity in the city. The most important research questions are the time of construction and the use of the building since its construction. According to preliminary assumptions and with a description of the plan of the building, the Lowdaricheh building of the Sassanid Period and the early Islamic centuries was considered to be religious. This research has been done by examining the history of the building in historical texts, evaluating the materials and decorative elements of the building, analyzing the architectural plan and comparing it with other neighboring and simultaneous buildings. The results of the research indicate that the chartaqi-e- Lowdaricheh building of the Sassanid Period or Early Islamic centuries was used by the (Zarvan-Ardashir) Fire-Temple, which was built by Ardeshir Babakan after the capture of Isfahan at noon in (Khar) village. The entrance of the Islam into the area has changed it from a Fire-Temple to a Hoseiniyeh and to this day its inhabitants use it as a religious building.
Keywords: Chartaghi, Sasanid, Early Islamic Centuries, Lowdaricheh, Burkhar County in Isfahan.
Introduction
Burkhart city is located in the central areas of Isfahan province. The Mountains Karkas of Height 3000 meters north and northeast and the rest of the area forms a relatively flat plain. The Lowdaricheh quadrangle was visited by the authors in the summer of 2014, during the enlargement of its adjacent bypass. Upon visiting the building, the four-story plan was built and immediately mapped by experts on the site and its contemporary adjacent spaces and with the permission of the Isfahan Province’s Cultural Heritage Office, some of the interior areas were peeled to identify the materials. The historical identity of the building remains unknown to this day.
Aims and Necessity of Research: To understand the identity of the building, it was attempted to provide a relative understanding of the history of construction and use of the building concerning historical texts and archaeological evidence.
Questions and assumptions: The most important research questions are the time of construction of the building and if the evidence is found and discovered and the know- how of it’s restoration. One of the most important research questions regarding the use of the building since its construction. According to preliminary assumptions and with the outline of the building plan, the chartaqi building of the Lowdaricheh of the Sasanian period and the early Islamic centuries was considered religious. This hypothesis was confirmed by conducting research.
Method: Fortunately, with the permission of the officials of the Isfahan Cultural Heritage Bureau, supervised by the Cultural Heritage Representation of Burkhar, the plasterboard was exfoliated in some parts of the internal body. 3 phases of architecture with different techniques and materials were identified, the first phase having two different sub-phases. Finally, it is attempted to introduce the Chartaqi of Lowdaricheh with a descriptive-analytical approach, in its historical-cultural context and its spatial range, and then to perform comparative studies with a relative land-use approach and dating.
Description and Introduction of the Building
The monument is Situated 60 meters west of the ruined aqueduct, which is one of the most important water resources in the area. The floor of the building is street well-nigh 122 cm high and all Building wall 466 cm high from level to below the dome. Is Dome height 333 cm. The dome of the Shengeh is 122 cm high. The sides of the building vary from 470 to 480 cm. The width of the current porch is 179 cm and the base of the base is 114 cm. According to the trustee of the building, the entrance to the southeast of the building was blocked by him in 1358 Hijri Shamsi, which shows the entrance to the exterior of the building. The date of blocking the northeast entrance was unclear during the layering and visibility of the materials was found to be of the second phase of the building’s architecture (mid-Islamic period - Seljuk period) and indicates that The rebuilding time is blocked due to the near and unnecessary passage, and only the opening and arch of this entrance can be seen in the interior of the building.
Exfoliation revealed that the building has three phases and several phases of architecture: 1- The first phase consists of a primary building with local materials that has a base of crushed mud and extensions of walls with 32 cm adobe and 8 Cm 2- The second period, which features with interior tile decoration, dome shingle, and shingle tile decoration. This architectural course was created due to the demolition of the original dome and with the aim of rebuilding it by a comparative study with other monuments in the Seljuk period. The materials used in this architectural, 23 × 23×5 cm mud brick, which were common materials during the renovation of the building and were used only in the dome to strengthen the mortar. In the second period of architecture, two rows of the niche have been built in the interior of the building 3- The third phase belongs to the contemporary era with materials of brick and cement to consolidate the main building created in 1358 by the trustee and other residents.
Conclusion
In this article, Lowdaricheh chartaqi is introduced with a descriptive-analytical approach in its historical-cultural context and spatial limits and then the function and history of this structure are explained using a comparative approach. Research results and evidences ranging from similarity of local building materials and plan of Lowdaricheh chartaqi with the pattern of Sasanian fire temples and Chartaqis throughout Iran as well as Marbin and Ardestān fire temples in Isfahan, orientation of Lowdaricheh Chartaqi opposite to Mecca, the absence of signs of Mihrab (the main element of religious buildings of the Islamic era), The use of local materials in construction, lack of tomb signs and the difference with rectangular vaulted tombs of Islamic period, limited interior space of chartaqi and its isolation similar to other chartaqis of Sassanid period, presence of porches and hallways around the structure before the changes made in 1358 Hijri Shamsi and its current religious use, proximity to water resource (a Qanāt is located 60 meters West of the structure), all suggest that Lowdaricheh Chartaghi was a construction from Sassanid period or early Islamic centuries with religious usage. Upon the advent and spread of Islamic religion in this area, this structure has been preserved like many other monuments because of its religious importance and status as well as clairvoyance of Muslims relative Lowdaricheh to other religions and has changed application as a liturgical-religious structure for newly convert Muslims and is now a Hoseiniyeh. Muslims and is now a Hoseiniyeh.
Lowdaricheh is a neighborhood in the town of Burkhar 9 km north of Isfahan. This monument is adjacent to the ancient cemetery, which has become a receational spot today. The northwest-southeast direction of the momument and its plan is a quadrilateral that later interferes. Due to its location 4 kilometers east of the historic city of Gaz (with settlements from the Parthian and Sassanid periods), the study of this building is important in its historical-cultural context. In this regard, while taking advantage of the archaeological survey of the Lowdaricheh quadrangle, it provided a relative understanding of the history of its construction and it’s use and as a basis for future comparative and comparative studies in the area, as one of the first studies of archaeological activity in the city. The most important research questions are the time of construction and the use of the building since its construction. According to preliminary assumptions and with a description of the plan of the building, the Lowdaricheh building of the Sassanid Period and the early Islamic centuries was considered to be religious. This research has been done by examining the history of the building in historical texts, evaluating the materials and decorative elements of the building, analyzing the architectural plan and comparing it with other neighboring and simultaneous buildings. The results of the research indicate that the chartaqi-e- Lowdaricheh building of the Sassanid Period or Early Islamic centuries was used by the (Zarvan-Ardashir) Fire-Temple, which was built by Ardeshir Babakan after the capture of Isfahan at noon in (Khar) village. The entrance of the Islam into the area has changed it from a Fire-Temple to a Hoseiniyeh and to this day its inhabitants use it as a religious building.
Keywords: Chartaghi, Sasanid, Early Islamic Centuries, Lowdaricheh, Burkhar County in Isfahan.
Introduction
Burkhart city is located in the central areas of Isfahan province. The Mountains Karkas of Height 3000 meters north and northeast and the rest of the area forms a relatively flat plain. The Lowdaricheh quadrangle was visited by the authors in the summer of 2014, during the enlargement of its adjacent bypass. Upon visiting the building, the four-story plan was built and immediately mapped by experts on the site and its contemporary adjacent spaces and with the permission of the Isfahan Province’s Cultural Heritage Office, some of the interior areas were peeled to identify the materials. The historical identity of the building remains unknown to this day.
Aims and Necessity of Research: To understand the identity of the building, it was attempted to provide a relative understanding of the history of construction and use of the building concerning historical texts and archaeological evidence.
Questions and assumptions: The most important research questions are the time of construction of the building and if the evidence is found and discovered and the know- how of it’s restoration. One of the most important research questions regarding the use of the building since its construction. According to preliminary assumptions and with the outline of the building plan, the chartaqi building of the Lowdaricheh of the Sasanian period and the early Islamic centuries was considered religious. This hypothesis was confirmed by conducting research.
Method: Fortunately, with the permission of the officials of the Isfahan Cultural Heritage Bureau, supervised by the Cultural Heritage Representation of Burkhar, the plasterboard was exfoliated in some parts of the internal body. 3 phases of architecture with different techniques and materials were identified, the first phase having two different sub-phases. Finally, it is attempted to introduce the Chartaqi of Lowdaricheh with a descriptive-analytical approach, in its historical-cultural context and its spatial range, and then to perform comparative studies with a relative land-use approach and dating.
Description and Introduction of the Building
The monument is Situated 60 meters west of the ruined aqueduct, which is one of the most important water resources in the area. The floor of the building is street well-nigh 122 cm high and all Building wall 466 cm high from level to below the dome. Is Dome height 333 cm. The dome of the Shengeh is 122 cm high. The sides of the building vary from 470 to 480 cm. The width of the current porch is 179 cm and the base of the base is 114 cm. According to the trustee of the building, the entrance to the southeast of the building was blocked by him in 1358 Hijri Shamsi, which shows the entrance to the exterior of the building. The date of blocking the northeast entrance was unclear during the layering and visibility of the materials was found to be of the second phase of the building’s architecture (mid-Islamic period - Seljuk period) and indicates that The rebuilding time is blocked due to the near and unnecessary passage, and only the opening and arch of this entrance can be seen in the interior of the building.
Exfoliation revealed that the building has three phases and several phases of architecture: 1- The first phase consists of a primary building with local materials that has a base of crushed mud and extensions of walls with 32 cm adobe and 8 Cm 2- The second period, which features with interior tile decoration, dome shingle, and shingle tile decoration. This architectural course was created due to the demolition of the original dome and with the aim of rebuilding it by a comparative study with other monuments in the Seljuk period. The materials used in this architectural, 23 × 23×5 cm mud brick, which were common materials during the renovation of the building and were used only in the dome to strengthen the mortar. In the second period of architecture, two rows of the niche have been built in the interior of the building 3- The third phase belongs to the contemporary era with materials of brick and cement to consolidate the main building created in 1358 by the trustee and other residents.
Conclusion
In this article, Lowdaricheh chartaqi is introduced with a descriptive-analytical approach in its historical-cultural context and spatial limits and then the function and history of this structure are explained using a comparative approach. Research results and evidences ranging from similarity of local building materials and plan of Lowdaricheh chartaqi with the pattern of Sasanian fire temples and Chartaqis throughout Iran as well as Marbin and Ardestān fire temples in Isfahan, orientation of Lowdaricheh Chartaqi opposite to Mecca, the absence of signs of Mihrab (the main element of religious buildings of the Islamic era), The use of local materials in construction, lack of tomb signs and the difference with rectangular vaulted tombs of Islamic period, limited interior space of chartaqi and its isolation similar to other chartaqis of Sassanid period, presence of porches and hallways around the structure before the changes made in 1358 Hijri Shamsi and its current religious use, proximity to water resource (a Qanāt is located 60 meters West of the structure), all suggest that Lowdaricheh Chartaghi was a construction from Sassanid period or early Islamic centuries with religious usage. Upon the advent and spread of Islamic religion in this area, this structure has been preserved like many other monuments because of its religious importance and status as well as clairvoyance of Muslims relative Lowdaricheh to other religions and has changed application as a liturgical-religious structure for newly convert Muslims and is now a Hoseiniyeh. Muslims and is now a Hoseiniyeh.
Mohammad-Sadegh Taher-Toloudel, Bahram Saleh-Sedghpour, Sina Kamali-Tabrizi,
year 4, Issue 14 (2-2021)
year 4, Issue 14 (2-2021)
Abstract
Abstract
Today, religious-educational buildings in the city of Tehran, which were built during the Qajar period, have undergone adverse physical changes due to natural erosion and urban expansion. Also, these semantic and intangible values of these buildings have faded over time, so that the position of these schools in society has declined. In order to rehabilitate these buildings, it is necessary to identify and pay attention to all the effective values in the conservation process. Therefore, the main purpose of this article is to study the architectural phenomena in the value protection of religious-educational buildings of the Qajar period in Tehran. To achieve this goal, the combined research method (qualitative-quantitative) has been used. The method of data collection is in the form of documentary-library studies, field visits and interviews with experts. Also, the method of data analysis is information using open coding, Chi-square test and Pearson correlation. The reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed by Cronbach’s alpha and the validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by consultation with experts. Findings show that there is a significant relationship between architectural phenomena and the protection of physical, behavioral and semantic values in religious-educational buildings of the Qajar period in Tehran. Also, the most important value in religious-educational buildings is related to the non-physical dimensions of the building, ie behavioral values with a correlation coefficient of 0.91, then semantic values with a correlation coefficient of 0.87. Therefore, in order to rehabilitate and revive the worthy values of this building, only paying attention to physical protection (tangible aspects of the building) with a correlation coefficient of 0.70 is not enough and intangible aspects of the building should be given serious attention. It was finally determined; The most important micro-variables affecting the phenomena of Qajar architecture in Tehran: design view in terms of form, use of the building in terms of performance, moral value in terms of idea, type of arch and roof in terms of technology and social value in terms of integrity have been identified.
Keywords: Mosque-School, Value Conservation, Architectural Phenomena, Qajar, Tehran.
Introduction
Schools are the most well-known educational spaces that have undergone fundamental changes over time in various fields, including architecture (Alaqmand et al. 2018: 5). The educational environment in Iran during the Islamic period was school. In line with the importance of learning science, the Prophet of Islam says: “Seeking knowledge is obligatory upon all Muslims”; Learning science is obligatory on every Muslim. The school can be briefly defined as an institution for higher education in which traditional Islamic sciences such as hadith, commentary, jurisprudence, etc. were taught (Brand 2012: 173). Religious sciences were taught in mosques and ulema houses in the early centuries. Gradually, with the expansion and advancement of the religious sciences, the prolongation of the period of education and the necessity of housing the students, the grounds for the emergence of schools were provided, most of which were located around mosques, markets, residential neighborhoods, squares and main passages or It has been the streets (Soltanzadeh et al. 2019: 450). The emphasis on teaching religious sciences had increased significantly during the Qajar period (Akbari 2012), so schools of religious sciences also became very important. Meanwhile, the city of Tehran, as the capital of Iran in the Qajar period, is the place of greatest concentration of religious schools. With the arrival of the Qajar period in Tehran and during the 130 years of rule, 38 schools of religious sciences have been built, of which 19 schools are still under the titles; Sadr School, Khan Marvi, Hakim Bashi (Agha Mahmoud), Haj Rajabali, Abdullah Khan, Sheikh Abdul Hussein, Old Sepahsalar (Shahid Beheshti), Haj Ghanbar Ali Khan, Moayer Al-Malak, Khazen Al-Molk, New Sepahsalar (Shahid Motahari), Kazemieh, Memarbashi , Majdal Doleh, Aqsa (Mushir Al-Saltanah), Philosopher Al-Dawlah, Mahmoudieh, Nizam Al-Dawlah and Mu’izz Al-Dawlah have remained (Neyestani et al. 2016: 146). All these schools in the old part of Tehran and in its six neighborhoods are called; Arg, Odlajan, Sangalaj, Bazaar, Chal Maidan and the government are located. Unfortunately, many of these schools have been destroyed and many others have undergone inappropriate physical and semantic changes that have caused irreparable damage to the values underlying this practice. The schools surveyed in this study are the same 19 schools that remain and are introduced. The reason for examining these schools is to identify the values that have led to the survival and stability of these schools to this day.
Statement of the Problem
The expression of the problem and the research concern can be examined in two parts. A) The known aspect of the issue, which indicates the position, importance and necessity of value-based protection in architectural heritage based on world literature. B) The unknown aspect of the issue, which expresses the lack and necessity of value-based protection in the use of Qajar religious-educational buildings in Tehran.
A. The obvious aspect of the problem: The Appleton Charter states that the better the values of an architectural heritage are known and interpreted, the better its protection and preservation (ICOMOS 1983). Architectural protection means the protection of valuable architectures or architectural values (Falahat et al. 2018). In the meantime, the way of recognizing and expressing the values hidden in the work has become of special importance (Ebrahimi Nejad and others 2014, 92) and value is one of the determining factors of validity and importance in special issues related to conservation science. It plays a very important role in the development of protection policies (De la Torre 2013; De la Torre et al: 2005). This type of protection is called value-based protection (Fredheim & Khalaf 2016). Values related to architectural heritage can be observed in three main aspects, tangible values (physical elements), intangible values (semantic values) and semi-tangible values (combination), which are appropriate in different societies according to the cultural context. And their environment includes a variety of priorities (Del et al. 2020; Del & Tabrizi 2020).
B) Unknown aspect of the problem: In the value-based protection process, considering the performance and use of the building, effective values in regeneration should be identified and the necessary protection measures should be taken based on it. In other words, effective values in the conservation process depend on the performance and use of the building (Fredheim & Khalaf 2016). For example, in the process of value-based conservation, the physical and semantic values of a historic cathedral will not be the same as the physical and semantic values of a historic castle (Del & et al. 2020). Therefore, due to the lack of knowledge of the latent and worthy values of protection in the religious-educational practice of Qajar Tehran, recognizing these values with regard to architectural phenomena is necessary and addressing it has priority.
Conclusion
Based on the results and data obtained, it can be stated that there is a significant relationship between architectural phenomena and the protection of physical, behavioral and semantic values in religious-educational buildings of the Qajar period in Tehran. Also, the most important value in religious-educational buildings is related to non-physical dimensions. Therefore, in order to revitalize and revive the worthy values of this performance, it is not enough to pay attention only to physical repair and management (tangible aspects) and the intangible aspects of the building should also be considered.
The results show that in physical values, it is the only construction technology that significantly affects the stability of the building. Also, in the behavioral values of all five levels of form, performance, idea, technology and integration affect the behavior of individuals to show the impact of the building and the built environment on the occurrence of value-based behaviors in the individual. In semantic values, the three levels of performance, idea and integration lead to the creation of semantic, mental and intangible concepts and themes.
In the study of the independent variable of the form related to religious-educational buildings of Qajar period of Tehran, it was observed that the most important subject is the designed facades which include courtyard facades, clock towers, porch and cell facades, exterior dome facades, minarets facades and entrances Is set. In the facades, attention is paid to fixed design principles such as symmetry and balance, optimal decorations and vertical orientation. The same principles in the design of the facade have caused these buildings to become an urban landmark in their time in terms of volume and form on the scale of the local texture and like the Sepah Salar Mosque-School. An examination of the performance-independent variable shows that the most important issue is user value. Tehran religious-educational buildings in order to realize three main uses; A) Residential use, b) Educational use and c) Prayer use have been designed and built that the combination of these three uses in a single building, shows the attention to the educational structure of students in the long run. In the study of the independent variable of the idea, the most important issue is moral value, so all the architect’s attention has been on the promotion of moral values through architecture and spatial examples. These ideas can be explored in the discussion of creating sociable spaces to enhance group interactions or the use of symbolic embellishments based on spiritual and moral themes. In examining the independent variable of technology, paying attention to choosing the type of arch and roof considering the use of space has been the most important issue; So that in these spaces, each arch has its own structural and geometric identity. In examining the independent variable of integration, attention to social value has been the most important issue. It is important to pay attention to social value at both levels of public presence and social interactions between students.
Today, religious-educational buildings in the city of Tehran, which were built during the Qajar period, have undergone adverse physical changes due to natural erosion and urban expansion. Also, these semantic and intangible values of these buildings have faded over time, so that the position of these schools in society has declined. In order to rehabilitate these buildings, it is necessary to identify and pay attention to all the effective values in the conservation process. Therefore, the main purpose of this article is to study the architectural phenomena in the value protection of religious-educational buildings of the Qajar period in Tehran. To achieve this goal, the combined research method (qualitative-quantitative) has been used. The method of data collection is in the form of documentary-library studies, field visits and interviews with experts. Also, the method of data analysis is information using open coding, Chi-square test and Pearson correlation. The reliability of the questionnaire was confirmed by Cronbach’s alpha and the validity of the questionnaire was confirmed by consultation with experts. Findings show that there is a significant relationship between architectural phenomena and the protection of physical, behavioral and semantic values in religious-educational buildings of the Qajar period in Tehran. Also, the most important value in religious-educational buildings is related to the non-physical dimensions of the building, ie behavioral values with a correlation coefficient of 0.91, then semantic values with a correlation coefficient of 0.87. Therefore, in order to rehabilitate and revive the worthy values of this building, only paying attention to physical protection (tangible aspects of the building) with a correlation coefficient of 0.70 is not enough and intangible aspects of the building should be given serious attention. It was finally determined; The most important micro-variables affecting the phenomena of Qajar architecture in Tehran: design view in terms of form, use of the building in terms of performance, moral value in terms of idea, type of arch and roof in terms of technology and social value in terms of integrity have been identified.
Keywords: Mosque-School, Value Conservation, Architectural Phenomena, Qajar, Tehran.
Introduction
Schools are the most well-known educational spaces that have undergone fundamental changes over time in various fields, including architecture (Alaqmand et al. 2018: 5). The educational environment in Iran during the Islamic period was school. In line with the importance of learning science, the Prophet of Islam says: “Seeking knowledge is obligatory upon all Muslims”; Learning science is obligatory on every Muslim. The school can be briefly defined as an institution for higher education in which traditional Islamic sciences such as hadith, commentary, jurisprudence, etc. were taught (Brand 2012: 173). Religious sciences were taught in mosques and ulema houses in the early centuries. Gradually, with the expansion and advancement of the religious sciences, the prolongation of the period of education and the necessity of housing the students, the grounds for the emergence of schools were provided, most of which were located around mosques, markets, residential neighborhoods, squares and main passages or It has been the streets (Soltanzadeh et al. 2019: 450). The emphasis on teaching religious sciences had increased significantly during the Qajar period (Akbari 2012), so schools of religious sciences also became very important. Meanwhile, the city of Tehran, as the capital of Iran in the Qajar period, is the place of greatest concentration of religious schools. With the arrival of the Qajar period in Tehran and during the 130 years of rule, 38 schools of religious sciences have been built, of which 19 schools are still under the titles; Sadr School, Khan Marvi, Hakim Bashi (Agha Mahmoud), Haj Rajabali, Abdullah Khan, Sheikh Abdul Hussein, Old Sepahsalar (Shahid Beheshti), Haj Ghanbar Ali Khan, Moayer Al-Malak, Khazen Al-Molk, New Sepahsalar (Shahid Motahari), Kazemieh, Memarbashi , Majdal Doleh, Aqsa (Mushir Al-Saltanah), Philosopher Al-Dawlah, Mahmoudieh, Nizam Al-Dawlah and Mu’izz Al-Dawlah have remained (Neyestani et al. 2016: 146). All these schools in the old part of Tehran and in its six neighborhoods are called; Arg, Odlajan, Sangalaj, Bazaar, Chal Maidan and the government are located. Unfortunately, many of these schools have been destroyed and many others have undergone inappropriate physical and semantic changes that have caused irreparable damage to the values underlying this practice. The schools surveyed in this study are the same 19 schools that remain and are introduced. The reason for examining these schools is to identify the values that have led to the survival and stability of these schools to this day.
Statement of the Problem
The expression of the problem and the research concern can be examined in two parts. A) The known aspect of the issue, which indicates the position, importance and necessity of value-based protection in architectural heritage based on world literature. B) The unknown aspect of the issue, which expresses the lack and necessity of value-based protection in the use of Qajar religious-educational buildings in Tehran.
A. The obvious aspect of the problem: The Appleton Charter states that the better the values of an architectural heritage are known and interpreted, the better its protection and preservation (ICOMOS 1983). Architectural protection means the protection of valuable architectures or architectural values (Falahat et al. 2018). In the meantime, the way of recognizing and expressing the values hidden in the work has become of special importance (Ebrahimi Nejad and others 2014, 92) and value is one of the determining factors of validity and importance in special issues related to conservation science. It plays a very important role in the development of protection policies (De la Torre 2013; De la Torre et al: 2005). This type of protection is called value-based protection (Fredheim & Khalaf 2016). Values related to architectural heritage can be observed in three main aspects, tangible values (physical elements), intangible values (semantic values) and semi-tangible values (combination), which are appropriate in different societies according to the cultural context. And their environment includes a variety of priorities (Del et al. 2020; Del & Tabrizi 2020).
B) Unknown aspect of the problem: In the value-based protection process, considering the performance and use of the building, effective values in regeneration should be identified and the necessary protection measures should be taken based on it. In other words, effective values in the conservation process depend on the performance and use of the building (Fredheim & Khalaf 2016). For example, in the process of value-based conservation, the physical and semantic values of a historic cathedral will not be the same as the physical and semantic values of a historic castle (Del & et al. 2020). Therefore, due to the lack of knowledge of the latent and worthy values of protection in the religious-educational practice of Qajar Tehran, recognizing these values with regard to architectural phenomena is necessary and addressing it has priority.
Conclusion
Based on the results and data obtained, it can be stated that there is a significant relationship between architectural phenomena and the protection of physical, behavioral and semantic values in religious-educational buildings of the Qajar period in Tehran. Also, the most important value in religious-educational buildings is related to non-physical dimensions. Therefore, in order to revitalize and revive the worthy values of this performance, it is not enough to pay attention only to physical repair and management (tangible aspects) and the intangible aspects of the building should also be considered.
The results show that in physical values, it is the only construction technology that significantly affects the stability of the building. Also, in the behavioral values of all five levels of form, performance, idea, technology and integration affect the behavior of individuals to show the impact of the building and the built environment on the occurrence of value-based behaviors in the individual. In semantic values, the three levels of performance, idea and integration lead to the creation of semantic, mental and intangible concepts and themes.
In the study of the independent variable of the form related to religious-educational buildings of Qajar period of Tehran, it was observed that the most important subject is the designed facades which include courtyard facades, clock towers, porch and cell facades, exterior dome facades, minarets facades and entrances Is set. In the facades, attention is paid to fixed design principles such as symmetry and balance, optimal decorations and vertical orientation. The same principles in the design of the facade have caused these buildings to become an urban landmark in their time in terms of volume and form on the scale of the local texture and like the Sepah Salar Mosque-School. An examination of the performance-independent variable shows that the most important issue is user value. Tehran religious-educational buildings in order to realize three main uses; A) Residential use, b) Educational use and c) Prayer use have been designed and built that the combination of these three uses in a single building, shows the attention to the educational structure of students in the long run. In the study of the independent variable of the idea, the most important issue is moral value, so all the architect’s attention has been on the promotion of moral values through architecture and spatial examples. These ideas can be explored in the discussion of creating sociable spaces to enhance group interactions or the use of symbolic embellishments based on spiritual and moral themes. In examining the independent variable of technology, paying attention to choosing the type of arch and roof considering the use of space has been the most important issue; So that in these spaces, each arch has its own structural and geometric identity. In examining the independent variable of integration, attention to social value has been the most important issue. It is important to pay attention to social value at both levels of public presence and social interactions between students.
Amin Allah Kamali, Mohammad Hossein Azizi Kharanaghi, Syed Iraj Beheshti, Ali Aarab,
year 9, Issue 32 (8-2025)
year 9, Issue 32 (8-2025)
Abstract
Abstract
The slag sites under study are located in Khatam County, Yazd Province. In the archaeological surveys of Khatam County in 1400 AH, twelve metal smelting sites were identified through abundant metallic slag, and each of these sites was sampled. Petrographic analysis revealed that the predominant slag is iron, with only one instance of copper slag. The sites where metal smelting occurred, attributed to historical and Islamic periods based on pottery, exhibited evidence of iron smelting and its compounds in eleven samples. These samples contain metallic minerals such as wustite, marcasite, hematite, and magnetite. Marcasite and wustite minerals are related to smelting furnace processes and are products of mineral substances. It appears that in some mines in the region, magnetite and hematite are the predominant minerals, while in others, hematite is the predominant mineral, with a smaller amount of magnetite, which is evident in these primary minerals within the slag. Another sample related to copper slag exhibited small vesicular structures and limited copper ore minerals (chalcopyrite, digenite, and metallic copper) within the slag matrix. Alongside these primary minerals, there is a flow-like green glassy component indicating high furnace heat. The analytical results show that the MgO content in the samples is less than the amount of lime. Therefore, the limestone in this area is mainly ordinary limestone and not dolomite. Chemical analysis revealed that metal workers in this area were more successful at producing sponge iron.
Keywords: Archaeological Survey, Slag, Iron, Ancient Mining, Khatam.
Introduction
Iran has long been recognized as a center for mining and metal smelting. Archaeological evidence indicates that northern and central Iran are among the oldest centers of metallurgy in the world. The presence of rich mineral reserves in Iran, among other factors, has influenced the growth of mining and metalworking in this region (Momenzadeh, 2005). Due to the existence of various metal ores and advanced cultures in Iran, this area can be identified as one of the main hubs of technological innovation in the field of ancient mining and metalworking. Khatam County, located in the southern part of Yazd Province, holds particular significance in the realm of iron slag. One of the earliest efforts to produce steel worldwide took place in this region (Alipour et al., 2021). Considering the evidence of steel production in this area, it is essential (Alipour, 2017) to understand the role Khatam played in iron production during the Islamic and Sassanian periods. To investigate this matter, 12 sites in Khatam County were selected for studying iron slag. The main objective of this research includes petrographic and geochemical analysis of the slag to identify the type of extracted metal(s) and the extraction process and production of metal(s) at these sites. Additionally, the provision of necessary minerals for mining in this area is also under scrutiny. Historical and field research methods were employed for this study, involving the collection of data and archaeological investigations; field studies, such as topographic mapping, photography, identification of sites and metal smelting furnaces; and examination of samples using polarizing microscopes and XRF devices. This research has addressed primary inquiries related to the type of metals in slag, the mining process, and metal production at Khatam’s iron slag sites. Overall, Khatam County held significant importance in the production of metals during ancient and Islamic times. This region is recognized as one of the ancient mining and metalworking centers, and further research into the history and mining processes in this area could provide additional insights into the history of metalworking in Iran.
Discussion
Based on XRF chemical analyses of the slag, the results indicate that the majority of the mineral content in these slags consists of iron ore, with only one case showing the presence of copper. The CaO concentrations in these slags range from 3.59 to 28.41%, and an increase in CaO leads to the production of calcium-rich olivine. The type of slag (flow, permeable, massive, or furnace bottom) significantly impacts the results of chemical analysis and the ratio of oxides of the main elements (metallic oxides and silica). Additionally, the high amount of CaO facilitates the formation of a calcium-rich silicate phase. Petrographic microscopy studies confirm these findings, revealing observable olivine phases and primary silicate phases with metallic iron minerals such as magnetite and hematite. Due to the silica content, the addition of limestone to the smelting process increases the amount of duplex iron (Fe3O4). Consequently, silica stabilizes triplex iron oxide (hematite), while limestone stabilizes spinel iron oxide (magnetite). Moreover, microscopic examinations primarily reveal metallic minerals such as magnetite and metallic iron. Furthermore, sponge iron, like many other ancient civilizations in the region under study, was produced. The production of this type of iron requires less technical knowledge than other types of iron (Abbasnejad, 2009).
Surveying the region revealed that plants such as pistachios and wild almond produce high-quality charcoal. Since blacksmiths have no idea about using additional limestone in the furnace, the smelted slags were highly adhesive, leading to significant iron loss. The use of limestone in iron removal creates slags with fine properties that are easily separated from the iron (Abbasnejad, 2009). A good slag resulting from smelting should contain 30 to 40% limestone. Tests conducted on iron ore in this region show limestone percentages ranging from 3.59 to 28.41%. The slag analysis results also indicate a small amount of limestone, averaging approximately 11.38%. The deficiency of these two elements in slag, as they play crucial roles in reducing smelting heat and separating iron from slag, can indicate high iron levels and the inadequacy of slag (adhesiveness, viscosity, high density), resulting in low-quality sponge iron. The percentage of Fe2O3 ranges from 23.20 to 74.25%, and the percentage of Al2O3 ranges from 0.003 to 0.94%. The percentage of MgO in the tested slags is less than 0.003%. According to the mineral analysis, the most important iron minerals in this region include hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4). Due to technical flaws in these furnaces, sponge iron contains impurities such as silica, phosphorus, aluminum oxide, manganese oxide, and other metallic oxides, as confirmed by various tests conducted on ore and slag.
Conclusion
Eleven samples from the metal smelting site showed evidence of iron smelting and its compounds. In these samples, metallic ores such as wustite, marcasite, hematite, and magnetite are observed. Marcasite and wustite ores are related to smelting furnace processes and are mineral byproducts. It seems that in some mines in the region, magnetite and hematite are predominant, while in others, hematite is less prevalent, and magnetite dominates. Additionally, in the sample related to copper smelting slag, small and limited vesicles of copper ores (covellite, digenite, and metallic copper) are observed alongside a part of the green glassy matrix, indicating high furnace heat. This primary mineral evidence is observed in the slags. Considering the changes in the calcium oxide (CaO) concentration, it can be inferred that this substance was added during smelting operations to aid in smelting and reduce the temperature of the furnace materials. The microscopic results of some slags reveal primary minerals, mostly hematite and magnetite metallic ores, indicating a magmatic origin for the utilized minerals. The percentages of silica (SiO2), magnesium, and aluminum in these slags are relatively low. Analyses of these slags and iron stones from this region show that a deficiency of CaO and SiO2 leads to iron loss in the slag while increasing the iron content within it.
Based on this research, it is likely that iron ore was extracted from mines near the site and was subsequently transported to this location. Given the presence of iron mines at distances of 8, 10, and 15 kilometers from these sites, these mines are likely the source of these slags. Regarding the archaeology of the region, historical references indicate that the area held significance and prominence in various historical periods, particularly during historical and Islamic eras. However, due to insufficient information about the archaeology of the region and the lack of precise dating of these sites, accurate dating of these sites is unfeasible.
The slag sites under study are located in Khatam County, Yazd Province. In the archaeological surveys of Khatam County in 1400 AH, twelve metal smelting sites were identified through abundant metallic slag, and each of these sites was sampled. Petrographic analysis revealed that the predominant slag is iron, with only one instance of copper slag. The sites where metal smelting occurred, attributed to historical and Islamic periods based on pottery, exhibited evidence of iron smelting and its compounds in eleven samples. These samples contain metallic minerals such as wustite, marcasite, hematite, and magnetite. Marcasite and wustite minerals are related to smelting furnace processes and are products of mineral substances. It appears that in some mines in the region, magnetite and hematite are the predominant minerals, while in others, hematite is the predominant mineral, with a smaller amount of magnetite, which is evident in these primary minerals within the slag. Another sample related to copper slag exhibited small vesicular structures and limited copper ore minerals (chalcopyrite, digenite, and metallic copper) within the slag matrix. Alongside these primary minerals, there is a flow-like green glassy component indicating high furnace heat. The analytical results show that the MgO content in the samples is less than the amount of lime. Therefore, the limestone in this area is mainly ordinary limestone and not dolomite. Chemical analysis revealed that metal workers in this area were more successful at producing sponge iron.
Keywords: Archaeological Survey, Slag, Iron, Ancient Mining, Khatam.
Introduction
Iran has long been recognized as a center for mining and metal smelting. Archaeological evidence indicates that northern and central Iran are among the oldest centers of metallurgy in the world. The presence of rich mineral reserves in Iran, among other factors, has influenced the growth of mining and metalworking in this region (Momenzadeh, 2005). Due to the existence of various metal ores and advanced cultures in Iran, this area can be identified as one of the main hubs of technological innovation in the field of ancient mining and metalworking. Khatam County, located in the southern part of Yazd Province, holds particular significance in the realm of iron slag. One of the earliest efforts to produce steel worldwide took place in this region (Alipour et al., 2021). Considering the evidence of steel production in this area, it is essential (Alipour, 2017) to understand the role Khatam played in iron production during the Islamic and Sassanian periods. To investigate this matter, 12 sites in Khatam County were selected for studying iron slag. The main objective of this research includes petrographic and geochemical analysis of the slag to identify the type of extracted metal(s) and the extraction process and production of metal(s) at these sites. Additionally, the provision of necessary minerals for mining in this area is also under scrutiny. Historical and field research methods were employed for this study, involving the collection of data and archaeological investigations; field studies, such as topographic mapping, photography, identification of sites and metal smelting furnaces; and examination of samples using polarizing microscopes and XRF devices. This research has addressed primary inquiries related to the type of metals in slag, the mining process, and metal production at Khatam’s iron slag sites. Overall, Khatam County held significant importance in the production of metals during ancient and Islamic times. This region is recognized as one of the ancient mining and metalworking centers, and further research into the history and mining processes in this area could provide additional insights into the history of metalworking in Iran.
Discussion
Based on XRF chemical analyses of the slag, the results indicate that the majority of the mineral content in these slags consists of iron ore, with only one case showing the presence of copper. The CaO concentrations in these slags range from 3.59 to 28.41%, and an increase in CaO leads to the production of calcium-rich olivine. The type of slag (flow, permeable, massive, or furnace bottom) significantly impacts the results of chemical analysis and the ratio of oxides of the main elements (metallic oxides and silica). Additionally, the high amount of CaO facilitates the formation of a calcium-rich silicate phase. Petrographic microscopy studies confirm these findings, revealing observable olivine phases and primary silicate phases with metallic iron minerals such as magnetite and hematite. Due to the silica content, the addition of limestone to the smelting process increases the amount of duplex iron (Fe3O4). Consequently, silica stabilizes triplex iron oxide (hematite), while limestone stabilizes spinel iron oxide (magnetite). Moreover, microscopic examinations primarily reveal metallic minerals such as magnetite and metallic iron. Furthermore, sponge iron, like many other ancient civilizations in the region under study, was produced. The production of this type of iron requires less technical knowledge than other types of iron (Abbasnejad, 2009).
Surveying the region revealed that plants such as pistachios and wild almond produce high-quality charcoal. Since blacksmiths have no idea about using additional limestone in the furnace, the smelted slags were highly adhesive, leading to significant iron loss. The use of limestone in iron removal creates slags with fine properties that are easily separated from the iron (Abbasnejad, 2009). A good slag resulting from smelting should contain 30 to 40% limestone. Tests conducted on iron ore in this region show limestone percentages ranging from 3.59 to 28.41%. The slag analysis results also indicate a small amount of limestone, averaging approximately 11.38%. The deficiency of these two elements in slag, as they play crucial roles in reducing smelting heat and separating iron from slag, can indicate high iron levels and the inadequacy of slag (adhesiveness, viscosity, high density), resulting in low-quality sponge iron. The percentage of Fe2O3 ranges from 23.20 to 74.25%, and the percentage of Al2O3 ranges from 0.003 to 0.94%. The percentage of MgO in the tested slags is less than 0.003%. According to the mineral analysis, the most important iron minerals in this region include hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4). Due to technical flaws in these furnaces, sponge iron contains impurities such as silica, phosphorus, aluminum oxide, manganese oxide, and other metallic oxides, as confirmed by various tests conducted on ore and slag.
Conclusion
Eleven samples from the metal smelting site showed evidence of iron smelting and its compounds. In these samples, metallic ores such as wustite, marcasite, hematite, and magnetite are observed. Marcasite and wustite ores are related to smelting furnace processes and are mineral byproducts. It seems that in some mines in the region, magnetite and hematite are predominant, while in others, hematite is less prevalent, and magnetite dominates. Additionally, in the sample related to copper smelting slag, small and limited vesicles of copper ores (covellite, digenite, and metallic copper) are observed alongside a part of the green glassy matrix, indicating high furnace heat. This primary mineral evidence is observed in the slags. Considering the changes in the calcium oxide (CaO) concentration, it can be inferred that this substance was added during smelting operations to aid in smelting and reduce the temperature of the furnace materials. The microscopic results of some slags reveal primary minerals, mostly hematite and magnetite metallic ores, indicating a magmatic origin for the utilized minerals. The percentages of silica (SiO2), magnesium, and aluminum in these slags are relatively low. Analyses of these slags and iron stones from this region show that a deficiency of CaO and SiO2 leads to iron loss in the slag while increasing the iron content within it.
Based on this research, it is likely that iron ore was extracted from mines near the site and was subsequently transported to this location. Given the presence of iron mines at distances of 8, 10, and 15 kilometers from these sites, these mines are likely the source of these slags. Regarding the archaeology of the region, historical references indicate that the area held significance and prominence in various historical periods, particularly during historical and Islamic eras. However, due to insufficient information about the archaeology of the region and the lack of precise dating of these sites, accurate dating of these sites is unfeasible.
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