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Showing 2 results for Hashemi Zarjabad
Fereshteh Azar Khordad, Hasan Hashemi Zarjabad, Ali Zarei,
year 2, Issue 4 (9-2018)
year 2, Issue 4 (9-2018)
Abstract
Abstract
The architect of Timurid have four systems or sets of proportions that could have combined them, but in general, a system had a major role. These systems can easily be equated to musical steps that although they are run by geometric progression, they are repeated. Each system is set based on an integer, but it is balanced by the root of that integer, according to geometric principles. Integers 2, 3, and 5 are each associated with geometric shapes determining the other elements of the scale. It was indeed Farabi who could discover the kinship of architecture with music, and then it was discussed by Bolatov. The nature of this system is well illustrated according to Farabi stating that the side of square and sector of circle in architecture is used as measuring instruments, and is similar to the theorem in logic and refrain in poetry, as well as poetry rhythms. It is precisely because of such an issue that Bolatov’s view can be accepted. Accordingly, the geometry of the design is not comparable with Western imaginations of proportion, which deals with the repetition of similar or related forms. In addition to its practical value, as an implementation procedure, the Islamic system provided the coordination and harmony for all parts, thereby the entire parts were associated with a single nature, like the relation of the parts of squares, triangles and pentagons with each other.
Keywords: Applied Geometry, Buildings Abubakr Taybadi, Goharshad Mosque, School of Ghiasieh Khargerd.
Introduction
A feature of the Timurid architecture is the use of geometry, which is manifested in the magnificence and verticality of the Timurid buildings. Also, during this period, exact sciences and geometry significantly developed. These sciences were practically applied in architecture and used as a pattern in the construction of buildings. The application of geometric formulas had a major role in coordinating proportions, balancing and overall balance and its elements, which are the features of the Timurid architecture. After preparing the design, the architect has been entered the practical research stage. Therefore, the following questions are raised in this study: What is the pattern and geometrical ratio used in the design of these buildings? The architect of the Timurid Period which geometrical principles have used in the design of these buildings?
Research Findings
Timurids architects applied all of the geometric systems used since the tenth century, including:
Rule 1: Square and its derivatives, the most important of which are the diameter of √2 of half and its double, and the side of an octagon (√ 2-1).
Rules 2 and 3: Equilateral triangle and its derivatives, i.e. sides and height (√3/2). Such triangles play a role in dodecagonal figures (the sides are equal,) (2-√3). Sometimes, the geometry of square and equilateral triangle were combined, as it is seen in (√ 2: √3) rectangles whose height is half the generatrix square. Bearer (√3) was often used. The size of this dimension can be drawn by encircling a pentagon and extending its radii.
Rules 6, 5, 4, and 7: A half-square is usually formed by dividing the square of a room into halves, so that by drawing diameters of two half-squares, a square in the center is obtained whose side is 1/ √5. The diameter itself (√5/2) plays a major role especially in determining the heights. Another method to get a rectangle with the same proportions yields a triangle with a ratio of 2:3√5. A common form associated with the half-square was a triangle made of diameters and two sides that could be used to separate the proportional parts of the line 1√5 and (√5-1) 1√5. This was done in a way that an arc was separated along the chord, the radius which was a triangle height, was then entered through this point to the base. These proportions were sometimes used for designs of façades.
Rules 8 and 9: The √5 of a rectangle or the √5 of orthogonal: using a half-square, the base could be divided in another way, previously known to the Greeks as “moderate limit” which is involved in the construction of the “golden section”. This is done in such a way that an arc with the length of the height along the chord is separated like the previous state, then a secondary arc whose center is smaller in the angle is drawn at the point on the chord. In the point where this arc intercepts the triangle the line is divided into two parts that one is larger {(√5-1)/2} represented by M, and another one is smaller {3-√5/2}} represented by m. The multiples of this section are usually used in the design of interior and exterior façades and many other spaces. A number of decreasing triangles were applied in the same way as used for the diameter of the minarets {2 / (√5 3-7); 4 / √53-7) ...}.
Rule 10: A decagon encircled in a circle with a radius of 2 has a side equal to √5-1. The golden rectangular was made by adding unit 1 to the larger part M {1: 2 / (√5+1)}. Using the half-square as a base, a rectangle can be easily drawn.
Conclosion
Abubakr Taybadi’s Tomb: The use of the rules 2 and 3, i.e. the equilateral triangle and its derivatives, like in the height of the triangle. The use of rule 5 of half-square, i.e. √5 and its derivatives and the rule 9, namely, √5 of the rectangle. The use of rule 4, i.e. half-square. Dividing the square of a room which is divided into halves. The ratio was used in this rule.
Goharshad Mosque: The combined is use of the rule 5 of half-square, namely √5 and its derivatives, and the rule 9, i.e. √5 of rectangle.
School of Ghiasieh Khargerd: The use of the rule 1, namely √2 and its derivatives such as By analyzing such patterns and the system of proportions used in the construction of Ghiasieh Khargerd School, Goharshad Mosque and Zayn al-Din monument, the present study describes the role of mathematicians and the application of geometry knowledge by architects such as Qavameddin Shirazi in the development process of architecture during the Timurid period.
The architect of Timurid have four systems or sets of proportions that could have combined them, but in general, a system had a major role. These systems can easily be equated to musical steps that although they are run by geometric progression, they are repeated. Each system is set based on an integer, but it is balanced by the root of that integer, according to geometric principles. Integers 2, 3, and 5 are each associated with geometric shapes determining the other elements of the scale. It was indeed Farabi who could discover the kinship of architecture with music, and then it was discussed by Bolatov. The nature of this system is well illustrated according to Farabi stating that the side of square and sector of circle in architecture is used as measuring instruments, and is similar to the theorem in logic and refrain in poetry, as well as poetry rhythms. It is precisely because of such an issue that Bolatov’s view can be accepted. Accordingly, the geometry of the design is not comparable with Western imaginations of proportion, which deals with the repetition of similar or related forms. In addition to its practical value, as an implementation procedure, the Islamic system provided the coordination and harmony for all parts, thereby the entire parts were associated with a single nature, like the relation of the parts of squares, triangles and pentagons with each other.
Keywords: Applied Geometry, Buildings Abubakr Taybadi, Goharshad Mosque, School of Ghiasieh Khargerd.
Introduction
A feature of the Timurid architecture is the use of geometry, which is manifested in the magnificence and verticality of the Timurid buildings. Also, during this period, exact sciences and geometry significantly developed. These sciences were practically applied in architecture and used as a pattern in the construction of buildings. The application of geometric formulas had a major role in coordinating proportions, balancing and overall balance and its elements, which are the features of the Timurid architecture. After preparing the design, the architect has been entered the practical research stage. Therefore, the following questions are raised in this study: What is the pattern and geometrical ratio used in the design of these buildings? The architect of the Timurid Period which geometrical principles have used in the design of these buildings?
Research Findings
Timurids architects applied all of the geometric systems used since the tenth century, including:
Rule 1: Square and its derivatives, the most important of which are the diameter of √2 of half and its double, and the side of an octagon (√ 2-1).
Rules 2 and 3: Equilateral triangle and its derivatives, i.e. sides and height (√3/2). Such triangles play a role in dodecagonal figures (the sides are equal,) (2-√3). Sometimes, the geometry of square and equilateral triangle were combined, as it is seen in (√ 2: √3) rectangles whose height is half the generatrix square. Bearer (√3) was often used. The size of this dimension can be drawn by encircling a pentagon and extending its radii.
Rules 6, 5, 4, and 7: A half-square is usually formed by dividing the square of a room into halves, so that by drawing diameters of two half-squares, a square in the center is obtained whose side is 1/ √5. The diameter itself (√5/2) plays a major role especially in determining the heights. Another method to get a rectangle with the same proportions yields a triangle with a ratio of 2:3√5. A common form associated with the half-square was a triangle made of diameters and two sides that could be used to separate the proportional parts of the line 1√5 and (√5-1) 1√5. This was done in a way that an arc was separated along the chord, the radius which was a triangle height, was then entered through this point to the base. These proportions were sometimes used for designs of façades.
Rules 8 and 9: The √5 of a rectangle or the √5 of orthogonal: using a half-square, the base could be divided in another way, previously known to the Greeks as “moderate limit” which is involved in the construction of the “golden section”. This is done in such a way that an arc with the length of the height along the chord is separated like the previous state, then a secondary arc whose center is smaller in the angle is drawn at the point on the chord. In the point where this arc intercepts the triangle the line is divided into two parts that one is larger {(√5-1)/2} represented by M, and another one is smaller {3-√5/2}} represented by m. The multiples of this section are usually used in the design of interior and exterior façades and many other spaces. A number of decreasing triangles were applied in the same way as used for the diameter of the minarets {2 / (√5 3-7); 4 / √53-7) ...}.
Rule 10: A decagon encircled in a circle with a radius of 2 has a side equal to √5-1. The golden rectangular was made by adding unit 1 to the larger part M {1: 2 / (√5+1)}. Using the half-square as a base, a rectangle can be easily drawn.
Conclosion
Abubakr Taybadi’s Tomb: The use of the rules 2 and 3, i.e. the equilateral triangle and its derivatives, like in the height of the triangle. The use of rule 5 of half-square, i.e. √5 and its derivatives and the rule 9, namely, √5 of the rectangle. The use of rule 4, i.e. half-square. Dividing the square of a room which is divided into halves. The ratio was used in this rule.
Goharshad Mosque: The combined is use of the rule 5 of half-square, namely √5 and its derivatives, and the rule 9, i.e. √5 of rectangle.
School of Ghiasieh Khargerd: The use of the rule 1, namely √2 and its derivatives such as By analyzing such patterns and the system of proportions used in the construction of Ghiasieh Khargerd School, Goharshad Mosque and Zayn al-Din monument, the present study describes the role of mathematicians and the application of geometry knowledge by architects such as Qavameddin Shirazi in the development process of architecture during the Timurid period.
Hossein Kohestani Andarzi, Hassan Hashemi Zarjabad, Atefeh Bazzi, Mohammad Amin Saadat Mehr, Sepideh Bakhtiari,
year 4, Issue 11 (6-2020)
year 4, Issue 11 (6-2020)
Abstract
Abstract
Tabaristan State (Mazandaran) has always been of great importance due to its numerous economic and commerce potentials. Moreover, it has politically been much valued by Qajar rulers. Accordingly, an old mint was actively working in this city up to 1288 AH which issued (uring Naser al-Din Shah Qajar (1264-1313 AH) numerous silver qirans in the following years: 1264-1266, 1269-1274, 1280-1283, and 1287-1288 AH. The coin issuing system was although superficially obeying Tehran rules, each city acted independently in practice, and the coins in many cities were issued with different grades of silver purity. Such problems raise two questions regarding Tabaristan mint: how much was the silver purity grade of the coins issued in Tabaristan, and how have they changed during the history? What was the position of Tabaristan’s coins which was an important state in comparison with other important states such as Mashhad, Tabriz, Isfahan, and Shiraz? Therefore, to answer these questions, the elemental analysis of this era coins (using PIXE method) was chosen as the main base of the present research due to not being destructive, being quick, and being highly precise in order to present an analysis of the Tabaristan’s mint commitment level to the central system of coin issuing during different times in comparison with other main states and cities in Qajar dynasty. In the present research, 17 coins from 17 different historical periods were elementally analyzed. Based on the numbersshowing the average silver purity grade changes during two periods of 1264-1278 AH and 1280-1288 AH, the results are 90.13 % and 84.33 %; the average for the whole period is then 88.08 %. At the same time, the silver purity grades of other mints are as follows: Mashhad (84%), Tabriz (82%), Tehran (90%), Isfahan (84%), and Shiraz (90%). Also, valuable information was obtained on the type of silver mines used, namely the Cerussite mines and how the coins were minted with copper and iron metals.
Keywords: Numismatics, PIXE Experiment, Tabaristan, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Economy.
Introduction
The Naseri period currency system was extremely disorganized; actually, coins were considered local! Every city issued silver qirans with different purity grades, and their rate of exchange with gold tomans was not the same. In fact, a city’s common money was not the same value in other cities (Matthee et al., 1396: 281-282). Tabaristan had always been important in terms of commerce and economy with a high political position for Qajar rulers, but even Tabaristan was not different from other places concerning coin issuing: there were numerous local silver qirans issued there with different values from 1264 to 1288 AH.
Here, coins could be considered priceless archeological data and documents facilitating economic analysis because coins belong to that time and, like texts, were not meant to be read again later (Kianzadegan et al., 1398: 182). Accordingly, elemental analysis of this era’s coins using Archaeometry can offer important information regarding economic-political conditions which could lead to a better understanding of those ears atmosphere (Beck et al., 2004: 153-162). The present research aims at investigation of the Naser al-Din Shah coins issued in Tabaristan covering all issuing dates with the help of PIXE experiment: the results can help us analyze the level of commitment to the coin issuing central system and Tabaristan economic power in different times in comparison with other states and cities.
The coins used in the present research belong to the personal collection of Seyed Hasan Sadat Razavi (Hyderabad, India) which were lent to the authors. Naser al-Din Shah coins (belonging to Tabaristan) were issued inthe following dates: 1264-1266, 1269-1274, 1280-1283, and 1287-1288 AH. They include 17 coins issued in 17 different dates in general. Therefore, for each specific issuing date, one coin was selected; The total number of coins was 17, which were analyzed by Pixie method at Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar (Odisha, India).
Identified Traces
Archaeometry studies, especially elemental analysis methods, are considered very useful in evaluating the coins carat (here: silver). Therefore, to answer these questions, 17 coins issued in Tabaristan at different times during 1264-1288 AH To do elemental decomposition by PIXE method, it was transferred to The Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar.
Based on PIXE experiment results, silver, copper, and iron were considered the main metals for analyzing the economic power of Tabaristan state in Naseri era; the purity grades have undergone drastic changes in 3 periods as follows:
1. 1264-1278 AH: silver (90.13%), copper (6.07%), and iron (1.99%)
2. 1280-1288 AH: silver (84.33%), copper (9.54%), and iron (4.45%)
The whole period average: silver (88.08%), copper (7.29%), and iron (2.86%)
Normally, less than 2 percent of the coins was naturally copper; if it is more than 2, it will not be considered natural, and for sure the mixture is done arbitrarily. The coins in the present research have 7.29 % copper which is a sign of intentional mixing done for alloying the coin metal.
The existence of iron, also, is due to surface contamination because of the place in which the coins were buried, but the present research coins contain a little amount of iron; the original coins were not buried at all and contain an average amount of 2.86 %. It is a sign of alloying for regulating the coins metal carat.
The silver purity grade of the coins issued in Tabaristan has decreased in two periods and has undergone changes but the silver carat of 88.08 % is extremely high in comparison with main mints in Mashhad (84%), Tabriz (82%), Tehran (90%), Isfahan (84%), and Shiraz (90%). It normally shows the economic power and flourishment of Tabaristan in Naseri era.
Moreover, the existence of 0.86% lead is a sign of using lead mines for silver, haste, and carelessness while extracting. Furthermore, lead mines are of two kinds: Cerussite and Galena. Cerussite mines contain 1.5 to 2 percent gold and Galena less than 2 percent. So, these coins contain an average of 0.31% gold which could be another sign of using Cerussite mines.
Conclusion
In this research, 17 coins belonging to 17 different periods have been elementally analyzed. As a result, the trend of silver purity grade changes for two periods of 1264-1278 AH and 1280-1288 AH is 90.13% and 84.33%: on the average, 88.08%. Therefore, its position was estimated among other mints in Mashhad (84%), Tabriz (82%), Tehran (90%), Isfahan (84%), and Shiraz (90%). Finally, it was clear that copper and iron were added (7.29% and 2.86%, respectively, on the average) in order to reduce the coins silver purity grade. Also, the existence of lead and gold (0.86% and 0.31%, respectively, on the average) is a sign of hasty extraction of silver and using Cerussite mines.
Tabaristan State (Mazandaran) has always been of great importance due to its numerous economic and commerce potentials. Moreover, it has politically been much valued by Qajar rulers. Accordingly, an old mint was actively working in this city up to 1288 AH which issued (uring Naser al-Din Shah Qajar (1264-1313 AH) numerous silver qirans in the following years: 1264-1266, 1269-1274, 1280-1283, and 1287-1288 AH. The coin issuing system was although superficially obeying Tehran rules, each city acted independently in practice, and the coins in many cities were issued with different grades of silver purity. Such problems raise two questions regarding Tabaristan mint: how much was the silver purity grade of the coins issued in Tabaristan, and how have they changed during the history? What was the position of Tabaristan’s coins which was an important state in comparison with other important states such as Mashhad, Tabriz, Isfahan, and Shiraz? Therefore, to answer these questions, the elemental analysis of this era coins (using PIXE method) was chosen as the main base of the present research due to not being destructive, being quick, and being highly precise in order to present an analysis of the Tabaristan’s mint commitment level to the central system of coin issuing during different times in comparison with other main states and cities in Qajar dynasty. In the present research, 17 coins from 17 different historical periods were elementally analyzed. Based on the numbersshowing the average silver purity grade changes during two periods of 1264-1278 AH and 1280-1288 AH, the results are 90.13 % and 84.33 %; the average for the whole period is then 88.08 %. At the same time, the silver purity grades of other mints are as follows: Mashhad (84%), Tabriz (82%), Tehran (90%), Isfahan (84%), and Shiraz (90%). Also, valuable information was obtained on the type of silver mines used, namely the Cerussite mines and how the coins were minted with copper and iron metals.
Keywords: Numismatics, PIXE Experiment, Tabaristan, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar, Economy.
Introduction
The Naseri period currency system was extremely disorganized; actually, coins were considered local! Every city issued silver qirans with different purity grades, and their rate of exchange with gold tomans was not the same. In fact, a city’s common money was not the same value in other cities (Matthee et al., 1396: 281-282). Tabaristan had always been important in terms of commerce and economy with a high political position for Qajar rulers, but even Tabaristan was not different from other places concerning coin issuing: there were numerous local silver qirans issued there with different values from 1264 to 1288 AH.
Here, coins could be considered priceless archeological data and documents facilitating economic analysis because coins belong to that time and, like texts, were not meant to be read again later (Kianzadegan et al., 1398: 182). Accordingly, elemental analysis of this era’s coins using Archaeometry can offer important information regarding economic-political conditions which could lead to a better understanding of those ears atmosphere (Beck et al., 2004: 153-162). The present research aims at investigation of the Naser al-Din Shah coins issued in Tabaristan covering all issuing dates with the help of PIXE experiment: the results can help us analyze the level of commitment to the coin issuing central system and Tabaristan economic power in different times in comparison with other states and cities.
The coins used in the present research belong to the personal collection of Seyed Hasan Sadat Razavi (Hyderabad, India) which were lent to the authors. Naser al-Din Shah coins (belonging to Tabaristan) were issued inthe following dates: 1264-1266, 1269-1274, 1280-1283, and 1287-1288 AH. They include 17 coins issued in 17 different dates in general. Therefore, for each specific issuing date, one coin was selected; The total number of coins was 17, which were analyzed by Pixie method at Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar (Odisha, India).
Identified Traces
Archaeometry studies, especially elemental analysis methods, are considered very useful in evaluating the coins carat (here: silver). Therefore, to answer these questions, 17 coins issued in Tabaristan at different times during 1264-1288 AH To do elemental decomposition by PIXE method, it was transferred to The Institute of Physics, Bhubaneswar.
Based on PIXE experiment results, silver, copper, and iron were considered the main metals for analyzing the economic power of Tabaristan state in Naseri era; the purity grades have undergone drastic changes in 3 periods as follows:
1. 1264-1278 AH: silver (90.13%), copper (6.07%), and iron (1.99%)
2. 1280-1288 AH: silver (84.33%), copper (9.54%), and iron (4.45%)
The whole period average: silver (88.08%), copper (7.29%), and iron (2.86%)
Normally, less than 2 percent of the coins was naturally copper; if it is more than 2, it will not be considered natural, and for sure the mixture is done arbitrarily. The coins in the present research have 7.29 % copper which is a sign of intentional mixing done for alloying the coin metal.
The existence of iron, also, is due to surface contamination because of the place in which the coins were buried, but the present research coins contain a little amount of iron; the original coins were not buried at all and contain an average amount of 2.86 %. It is a sign of alloying for regulating the coins metal carat.
The silver purity grade of the coins issued in Tabaristan has decreased in two periods and has undergone changes but the silver carat of 88.08 % is extremely high in comparison with main mints in Mashhad (84%), Tabriz (82%), Tehran (90%), Isfahan (84%), and Shiraz (90%). It normally shows the economic power and flourishment of Tabaristan in Naseri era.
Moreover, the existence of 0.86% lead is a sign of using lead mines for silver, haste, and carelessness while extracting. Furthermore, lead mines are of two kinds: Cerussite and Galena. Cerussite mines contain 1.5 to 2 percent gold and Galena less than 2 percent. So, these coins contain an average of 0.31% gold which could be another sign of using Cerussite mines.
Conclusion
In this research, 17 coins belonging to 17 different periods have been elementally analyzed. As a result, the trend of silver purity grade changes for two periods of 1264-1278 AH and 1280-1288 AH is 90.13% and 84.33%: on the average, 88.08%. Therefore, its position was estimated among other mints in Mashhad (84%), Tabriz (82%), Tehran (90%), Isfahan (84%), and Shiraz (90%). Finally, it was clear that copper and iron were added (7.29% and 2.86%, respectively, on the average) in order to reduce the coins silver purity grade. Also, the existence of lead and gold (0.86% and 0.31%, respectively, on the average) is a sign of hasty extraction of silver and using Cerussite mines.
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