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Mohammad Ismail Ismaili Jelodar, Hamid Poordavood, Ali Arab,
year 2, Issue 5 (12-2018)
year 2, Issue 5 (12-2018)
Abstract
Abstract
Throughout the period of Sassanids, as well as in the Islamic period, trade played a very important role in their economies and livelihoods. Meanwhile, due to political reasons in Late of Sassanid period, access to the Persian Gulf has been of particular importance. The city of Kuvar was part of the Fars province’s trade route because it led to the Persian Gulf on one side and to the central areas of the empire, for this reason, it has played a colorful role throughout history. Due to the presence of the riverside (Qara-aqag) near this city, the commercial convoys had to use a bridge to cross the river. In this study, attempts to by studying archaeological studies as well as library research investigate the water source of Kuvar city by, the role of Kuvar, bridge in connection with Persian Gulf as well as the etymology of city name. Bridge Kovar’s survival has been one of the possible caravans pass options. By examining the original geographical texts from the early centuries of Islam, as well as examining the current bridge structure, one can infer that this city had a very important role in establishing and sustaining trade from the Sassanid period to the Islamic period. Also, the durability and survival of this city has historically been dependent on water obtained from the Bahman Dam through specific facilities. Accordingly, in the present study, it has been attempted to explain how and these facilities function, as well as, in addition to Paul Kuvar’s ontology of construction technique and its application and performance, based on existing written sources, the landscape of the area has been reviewed and finally Evaluate the results, report the proposed chronology. This study attempts to answer the following questions: How is the main source of water in the city of Kuvar evaluated and what is the mechanism of water transfer to the city of Kuvar? How is the role of Kuvar city as a Midways on the route to the Persian Gulf and Siraf evaluated and the main evidence that what was the significance of the historic bridge of Kuvar?
Keywords: Kuvar, Kuvar Bridge, Bahman Dam, Road, Persian Gulf.
Introduction
In the end of the Sassanid period, transit from the Silk Road had been restricted due to the Iranian and Byzantine wars, so the Persian Gulf had replaced this route and thereby continued trade links with the east and west of the empire. Undoubtedly, the main need of every city is a permanent source of water, so the location of cities is a function of the factors that are undoubtedly the among main one’s access to water. It is also one of the most important needs of governments in commercial, political, military and social communication in urban areas is the construction of bridges. Clearly, the existence of rivers, especially permanent waterways and valleys will be a major obstacle to these communications, on this basis, material evidence has remained to show that such buildings are prominent examples of the bard Borid Bridge, the Daughter Bridge and other ancient bridges from the Sassanid period. This has continued in the Islamic era with the construction of new structures, the restoration of old bridges. The element of commerce has been one of the important reasons to pay attention to these structures, In the Islamic era, a large volume of trade was carried out through the central and southern cities of Iran, including the Persian Gulf ports at the head of the Siraf port. Meanwhile, Fars province has played a vital role in this trade route due to its proximity to the Persian Gulf. Also, of other important factors in the creation and survival of the city have been access to other areas. Among these cities is Kuvar, the city has it long time a major Role of connection Shiraz to the Persian Gulf, and this city a few hundred yard away from the Qareq Aghaj river.
Research Finding
From the Sassanid to the Islamic periods, maritime trade, which was directly linked to the Persian Gulf, has been very important in the Iranian economy. Among the maritime trade gear were cities that facilitated Caravans access to the Persian Gulf. Sometimes in some geographical situations due to obstacles such as rivers, the caravan movement was dependent on the construction of bridges that made caravan movement possible. But the construction of the historic Kuvar Bridge in the Sassanid period has been eliminated the problem. The bridge, which a historical background in style and architecture, has been survived to this day despite extensive damage. The city needed a permanent source of water, which has done by building an avalanche and raising the water level and mounting water on the ground by avalanche installations. But due to surface effects, such as several hills that prevented water from moving, a Qanat were used to pass through the water and flow to the surface. This method has been observed in other parts of Iran such as Arrajan. Due to the size of the kuvar city, it was necessary manage the water that flowed into the city. In the Islamic period a village called Khaffr was established to manage the water that flowed into the Kuvar, which was responsible for managing and distributing the required water to the Kuvar. This article also deals with the etymology of the name of the city, Ardeshir Babakan report is the first text to come up the name of this the city, in this book the city is called Guar, and in the Islamic era the name of this city has evolved.
Conclusion
It has been said, that the city has long been regarded for its role and importance in the way it has been concerned, Bridge Kuvar and the Bahman dam and its associated subdivisions, since they were directly linked to the creation and survival of this city. Undoubtedly, the city of Kuvar built has been to communicate with the Persian Gulf. Since the water factor is one of the most important factors for the formation and survival of the city, undoubtedly, the avalanche and its associated structures have also been built since the foundation of the city. Concerning the dating of the Kuvar Bridge, according to the boulders cut at the base of the bridge can be said was originally built in the Sassanid period. As mentioned, that there was a village called Khaffr near the city of Kuvar which was responsible for water management in the Islamic era, which indicates the high water consumption due to the size and importance of the city, which also has been required special management.
Throughout the period of Sassanids, as well as in the Islamic period, trade played a very important role in their economies and livelihoods. Meanwhile, due to political reasons in Late of Sassanid period, access to the Persian Gulf has been of particular importance. The city of Kuvar was part of the Fars province’s trade route because it led to the Persian Gulf on one side and to the central areas of the empire, for this reason, it has played a colorful role throughout history. Due to the presence of the riverside (Qara-aqag) near this city, the commercial convoys had to use a bridge to cross the river. In this study, attempts to by studying archaeological studies as well as library research investigate the water source of Kuvar city by, the role of Kuvar, bridge in connection with Persian Gulf as well as the etymology of city name. Bridge Kovar’s survival has been one of the possible caravans pass options. By examining the original geographical texts from the early centuries of Islam, as well as examining the current bridge structure, one can infer that this city had a very important role in establishing and sustaining trade from the Sassanid period to the Islamic period. Also, the durability and survival of this city has historically been dependent on water obtained from the Bahman Dam through specific facilities. Accordingly, in the present study, it has been attempted to explain how and these facilities function, as well as, in addition to Paul Kuvar’s ontology of construction technique and its application and performance, based on existing written sources, the landscape of the area has been reviewed and finally Evaluate the results, report the proposed chronology. This study attempts to answer the following questions: How is the main source of water in the city of Kuvar evaluated and what is the mechanism of water transfer to the city of Kuvar? How is the role of Kuvar city as a Midways on the route to the Persian Gulf and Siraf evaluated and the main evidence that what was the significance of the historic bridge of Kuvar?
Keywords: Kuvar, Kuvar Bridge, Bahman Dam, Road, Persian Gulf.
Introduction
In the end of the Sassanid period, transit from the Silk Road had been restricted due to the Iranian and Byzantine wars, so the Persian Gulf had replaced this route and thereby continued trade links with the east and west of the empire. Undoubtedly, the main need of every city is a permanent source of water, so the location of cities is a function of the factors that are undoubtedly the among main one’s access to water. It is also one of the most important needs of governments in commercial, political, military and social communication in urban areas is the construction of bridges. Clearly, the existence of rivers, especially permanent waterways and valleys will be a major obstacle to these communications, on this basis, material evidence has remained to show that such buildings are prominent examples of the bard Borid Bridge, the Daughter Bridge and other ancient bridges from the Sassanid period. This has continued in the Islamic era with the construction of new structures, the restoration of old bridges. The element of commerce has been one of the important reasons to pay attention to these structures, In the Islamic era, a large volume of trade was carried out through the central and southern cities of Iran, including the Persian Gulf ports at the head of the Siraf port. Meanwhile, Fars province has played a vital role in this trade route due to its proximity to the Persian Gulf. Also, of other important factors in the creation and survival of the city have been access to other areas. Among these cities is Kuvar, the city has it long time a major Role of connection Shiraz to the Persian Gulf, and this city a few hundred yard away from the Qareq Aghaj river.
Research Finding
From the Sassanid to the Islamic periods, maritime trade, which was directly linked to the Persian Gulf, has been very important in the Iranian economy. Among the maritime trade gear were cities that facilitated Caravans access to the Persian Gulf. Sometimes in some geographical situations due to obstacles such as rivers, the caravan movement was dependent on the construction of bridges that made caravan movement possible. But the construction of the historic Kuvar Bridge in the Sassanid period has been eliminated the problem. The bridge, which a historical background in style and architecture, has been survived to this day despite extensive damage. The city needed a permanent source of water, which has done by building an avalanche and raising the water level and mounting water on the ground by avalanche installations. But due to surface effects, such as several hills that prevented water from moving, a Qanat were used to pass through the water and flow to the surface. This method has been observed in other parts of Iran such as Arrajan. Due to the size of the kuvar city, it was necessary manage the water that flowed into the city. In the Islamic period a village called Khaffr was established to manage the water that flowed into the Kuvar, which was responsible for managing and distributing the required water to the Kuvar. This article also deals with the etymology of the name of the city, Ardeshir Babakan report is the first text to come up the name of this the city, in this book the city is called Guar, and in the Islamic era the name of this city has evolved.
Conclusion
It has been said, that the city has long been regarded for its role and importance in the way it has been concerned, Bridge Kuvar and the Bahman dam and its associated subdivisions, since they were directly linked to the creation and survival of this city. Undoubtedly, the city of Kuvar built has been to communicate with the Persian Gulf. Since the water factor is one of the most important factors for the formation and survival of the city, undoubtedly, the avalanche and its associated structures have also been built since the foundation of the city. Concerning the dating of the Kuvar Bridge, according to the boulders cut at the base of the bridge can be said was originally built in the Sassanid period. As mentioned, that there was a village called Khaffr near the city of Kuvar which was responsible for water management in the Islamic era, which indicates the high water consumption due to the size and importance of the city, which also has been required special management.
Ali Aarab, Mohammad Bonyadi Nezhad, Seyedeh Iraj Beheshti, Vahid Azadi,
year 3, Issue 7 (5-2019)
year 3, Issue 7 (5-2019)
Abstract
Abstract
The previous studies on the Elamite pottery generally focused on the form and shape of the artifacts. From the perspective of fabric, very few studies have explored the Elamite pottery. The pottery type studied in this paper is orange (ranging from light brown to red) composed of a tempering material, sand and white particles. The core of this no ornamented, wheel-built pottery is black. In an investigation to outline the scope and boundaries of Haft Tapeh ancient city, a number of the Elamite pottery samples were recovered in certain layers dating back to the late ancient Elam (Sukalmah) and the Middle Elamite near the adobe structures of Haft Tapeh. Haft Tapeh refers to a structure belonging to the Elamite Era located in Khuzestan and south of Susa. One major finding in this city is a tomb from the Middle Elamite Era. Since 1965, this building has been investigated by Negahban and later by Mofidi-Nasr abadi. Thus, Haft Tapeh can undoubtedly be considered a city belonging to the Elamite Era. In this light, the pottery type in this geographical scope can be particularly useful for comparison of similar artifacts found in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, both of which could be associated with the Elamite Era. This study focused on Asgaran and Saba as two regions in Isfahan and central part of Ardal in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. A total of 10 pottery samples were randomly selected from these regions. They were then compared in terms of fabric and composition against 4 counterparts found in archaeological layers of Haft Tapeh belonging to the Elamite Era. It should be noted that the two-color body in the pottery sample is not at all associated with the type of compounds or curing temperature, Since the two parts are identical in terms of composition. Moreover, it seems that the main reason for the two-color body lies in the curing conditions and techniques (oxidation and reduction) inside the furnace, leading to two different colors. Apart from that, there is a kind of orientation in the components of pottery samples, potentially indicating they were built on wheels.
Keywords: Elam, Orange-Red Pottery, Petrography, XRD, Ft-IR.
Introduction
One of the surrounding regions cover the north of present-day provinces Fars and Khuzestan as Elamite centres in the ancient era. The noteworthy point about these regions is their potentially rich metal mines. This has been mentioned in the Mesopotamian inscriptions, mainly explaining the link between the Mesopotamian plain and the highlands of Elam. The present-day provinces, Khuzestan and Fars, have small potentials for metal mines. Hence, they only served as surrounding regions supplying the metals. However, little investigation has been done on the archaeological data from the Elamite Era. It is crucial to carry out a historical study on these regions along with the archaeological data to enlighten the dark spots in the Elamite Era, and ultimately provide a toponymy of the Elamite cities. One instance of such archaeological data involves various types of local pottery in Khuzestan (as a central city of Elam), which was compared through petrography against the samples recovered in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari (as two dently the era in surrounding regions). Thus, this paper intends to discuss more con which this type of pottery was built and its origin in order to provide a toponymy of the previously mentioned cities based on historical and archaeological data. In Miankooh, Ardal, more than 76% of Elamite sites have been reported to be nomadic. This is highly important alongside the neighborhood of this province and Isfahan with regard to the toponymy of Zabshali and LU.SU. Meanwhile, there are a considerable number of pottery samples from this region comparable to their counterparts across the Elamite centers.
The surrounding regions of Elamite centers (Susa and Anshan) have so far been rarely explored. One of such surrounding regions stretched across the norther of Elamite centers, covering certain areas of present-day provinces Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. In addition, there are pottery samples from the Elamite Era found in Khuzestan (as one of the central districts of Elamite), even though they have rarely been explored in studies on the Elamite Era. This can be partly associated with the limited number of such pottery samples against their counterparts from the Elamite Era in Khuzestan. Nonetheless, the noteworthy point about this pottery type is the great similarity (discussed later) in Khuzestan to those recovered in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. Therefore, this study attempted to explore these regions from the Elamite Era through an interdisciplinary approach involving archeology, archeometry and history of northern Susa and Anshan. Despite the importance of the regions surrounding Elamite centers (Susa and Anshan) based on the Mesopotamian inscriptions, insufficient effort has so far been made to investigate the Elamite Era in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari as two surrounding regions. Nevertheless, the pottery type studied in this paper has been frequently found in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. In this study, great effort was made to review the geographical locations of the two provinces in Elamite Era according to written sources and archaeological evidence. Moreover, the pottery artifacts were petrographically examined to find out whether or not the samples recovered in Haft Tapeh, as a key central spot in Khuzestan during the Elamite Era, are congruent with the clay artifacts found in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari from the perspective of appearance and textural characteristics. In fact, the discussion revolves around the possible involvement and predominance of the Elamite in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, while providing a toponymy of ancient Elamite regions in those provinces today.
Conclusion
The specific pottery type in this study indicated a remarkable frequency in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. Moreover, it proved to be similar to counterparts recovered at Haft Tapeh (Khuzestan) in terms of fabric, production technique and curing temperature. It is essential to point out the pottery types across the northern Elamite centers which have been rarely explored so far. The specific pottery type examined in this paper can definitely be considered an Elamite artifact. It should originate from the Zagros Mountains in the north of Khuzestan (Bakhtiari highlands). That is perhaps why this type of pottery is less abundant in Khuzestan as opposed to Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. According to the constituent element of pottery samples, this pottery type does not originate from Khuzestan Plain, but it can rather be traced in Zagros Mountains. Therefore, it can be argued that the Elamite were involved in dominated Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, while delving into the toponymy of Elamite cities such as Zabshali and Tukrish in certain parts of Isfahan and LU.SU in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. The regions never explored from that very perspective can set out a new avenue of Elamite research into these Iranian provinces. Finally, it is recommended that future studies focus on northern regions of Elamite centers including the present-day Isfahan, Yazd and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiariti so as to clarify many of the archaeological ambiguities of Elamite Era. After all, an in-depth investigation of Mesopotamian inscriptions can help scholars realize the importance of these regions, while revealing their archaeological capacities.
The previous studies on the Elamite pottery generally focused on the form and shape of the artifacts. From the perspective of fabric, very few studies have explored the Elamite pottery. The pottery type studied in this paper is orange (ranging from light brown to red) composed of a tempering material, sand and white particles. The core of this no ornamented, wheel-built pottery is black. In an investigation to outline the scope and boundaries of Haft Tapeh ancient city, a number of the Elamite pottery samples were recovered in certain layers dating back to the late ancient Elam (Sukalmah) and the Middle Elamite near the adobe structures of Haft Tapeh. Haft Tapeh refers to a structure belonging to the Elamite Era located in Khuzestan and south of Susa. One major finding in this city is a tomb from the Middle Elamite Era. Since 1965, this building has been investigated by Negahban and later by Mofidi-Nasr abadi. Thus, Haft Tapeh can undoubtedly be considered a city belonging to the Elamite Era. In this light, the pottery type in this geographical scope can be particularly useful for comparison of similar artifacts found in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, both of which could be associated with the Elamite Era. This study focused on Asgaran and Saba as two regions in Isfahan and central part of Ardal in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. A total of 10 pottery samples were randomly selected from these regions. They were then compared in terms of fabric and composition against 4 counterparts found in archaeological layers of Haft Tapeh belonging to the Elamite Era. It should be noted that the two-color body in the pottery sample is not at all associated with the type of compounds or curing temperature, Since the two parts are identical in terms of composition. Moreover, it seems that the main reason for the two-color body lies in the curing conditions and techniques (oxidation and reduction) inside the furnace, leading to two different colors. Apart from that, there is a kind of orientation in the components of pottery samples, potentially indicating they were built on wheels.
Keywords: Elam, Orange-Red Pottery, Petrography, XRD, Ft-IR.
Introduction
One of the surrounding regions cover the north of present-day provinces Fars and Khuzestan as Elamite centres in the ancient era. The noteworthy point about these regions is their potentially rich metal mines. This has been mentioned in the Mesopotamian inscriptions, mainly explaining the link between the Mesopotamian plain and the highlands of Elam. The present-day provinces, Khuzestan and Fars, have small potentials for metal mines. Hence, they only served as surrounding regions supplying the metals. However, little investigation has been done on the archaeological data from the Elamite Era. It is crucial to carry out a historical study on these regions along with the archaeological data to enlighten the dark spots in the Elamite Era, and ultimately provide a toponymy of the Elamite cities. One instance of such archaeological data involves various types of local pottery in Khuzestan (as a central city of Elam), which was compared through petrography against the samples recovered in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari (as two dently the era in surrounding regions). Thus, this paper intends to discuss more con which this type of pottery was built and its origin in order to provide a toponymy of the previously mentioned cities based on historical and archaeological data. In Miankooh, Ardal, more than 76% of Elamite sites have been reported to be nomadic. This is highly important alongside the neighborhood of this province and Isfahan with regard to the toponymy of Zabshali and LU.SU. Meanwhile, there are a considerable number of pottery samples from this region comparable to their counterparts across the Elamite centers.
The surrounding regions of Elamite centers (Susa and Anshan) have so far been rarely explored. One of such surrounding regions stretched across the norther of Elamite centers, covering certain areas of present-day provinces Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. In addition, there are pottery samples from the Elamite Era found in Khuzestan (as one of the central districts of Elamite), even though they have rarely been explored in studies on the Elamite Era. This can be partly associated with the limited number of such pottery samples against their counterparts from the Elamite Era in Khuzestan. Nonetheless, the noteworthy point about this pottery type is the great similarity (discussed later) in Khuzestan to those recovered in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. Therefore, this study attempted to explore these regions from the Elamite Era through an interdisciplinary approach involving archeology, archeometry and history of northern Susa and Anshan. Despite the importance of the regions surrounding Elamite centers (Susa and Anshan) based on the Mesopotamian inscriptions, insufficient effort has so far been made to investigate the Elamite Era in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari as two surrounding regions. Nevertheless, the pottery type studied in this paper has been frequently found in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. In this study, great effort was made to review the geographical locations of the two provinces in Elamite Era according to written sources and archaeological evidence. Moreover, the pottery artifacts were petrographically examined to find out whether or not the samples recovered in Haft Tapeh, as a key central spot in Khuzestan during the Elamite Era, are congruent with the clay artifacts found in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari from the perspective of appearance and textural characteristics. In fact, the discussion revolves around the possible involvement and predominance of the Elamite in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, while providing a toponymy of ancient Elamite regions in those provinces today.
Conclusion
The specific pottery type in this study indicated a remarkable frequency in Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. Moreover, it proved to be similar to counterparts recovered at Haft Tapeh (Khuzestan) in terms of fabric, production technique and curing temperature. It is essential to point out the pottery types across the northern Elamite centers which have been rarely explored so far. The specific pottery type examined in this paper can definitely be considered an Elamite artifact. It should originate from the Zagros Mountains in the north of Khuzestan (Bakhtiari highlands). That is perhaps why this type of pottery is less abundant in Khuzestan as opposed to Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. According to the constituent element of pottery samples, this pottery type does not originate from Khuzestan Plain, but it can rather be traced in Zagros Mountains. Therefore, it can be argued that the Elamite were involved in dominated Isfahan and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari, while delving into the toponymy of Elamite cities such as Zabshali and Tukrish in certain parts of Isfahan and LU.SU in Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari. The regions never explored from that very perspective can set out a new avenue of Elamite research into these Iranian provinces. Finally, it is recommended that future studies focus on northern regions of Elamite centers including the present-day Isfahan, Yazd and Chaharmahal and Bakhtiariti so as to clarify many of the archaeological ambiguities of Elamite Era. After all, an in-depth investigation of Mesopotamian inscriptions can help scholars realize the importance of these regions, while revealing their archaeological capacities.
Parasto Masjedi-Khak, Mostafa Khazaei, Ali Aarab, Seyed Iraj Beheshti,
year 5, Issue 15 (6-2021)
year 5, Issue 15 (6-2021)
Abstract
Abstract
Due to the long lasting durability of pottery, they remain unchanged and plays an important role in archaeological researches. Aside of its difference usage in archaeological research such as dating, artistic and subsistent and communications and exchanges among people of different regions, is used in technology level. Archaeological site of Tape Kelar Hill, situated near Hasankif city, in Kelardasht, is one of the most important prehistoric sites in southern coast of Caspian Sea, which includes cultural materials from the Late Chalcolithic from the fourth millennium B.C. to the Islamic era. The significance of this site has become twofold considering the previous views issued about prehistoric cultures in western Mazandaran and Gilan provinces. The Early Bronze Age potteries of this site are of Kura-Araxes. These are the most important finds of this site. The main research question of this article pertains to the structure of the pottery in this area in two periods and aims to see whether or not the initiation of Kura-Araxes pottery has resulted from external factors and there is difference between Early and Middle Bronze Ages? In this study, 15 pieces of pottery from Early and Middle Bronze ages were studied via petrography method in order to compare in terms of composition and mineral tissues. Research has shown that the pottery of this site, in spite of experiencing some changes in the tissues, is local production. Therefore, it is rebutted to claim that the pottery of this culture is simulated by indigenous potters.
Keywords: Kura-Araxes, Middle Bronze Ages,Tape Kelar, Petrography.
Introduction
Petrographic study of Kura-Araxes pottery, despite its prevalence outside of Iran, has not received much attention from Iranian archaeologists. The first petrographic study of Kura-Araxes pottery in Iran was also conducted by Western archaeologists. The study of Kura-Araxes pottery in areas far from emergence region of this culture in Iran requires data from sites that had a stratigraphic-chronology continuity that was not available until the excavation of Tapeh Kelar.
In terms of the location of the sites studied by the petrographic method prior to the present study, two general classifications can be proposed: first, the sites that were within the geographical area of the origin of the Kura-Araxes culture, and second, the area- Those who are far away and outside the region of origin and only in the second stage of the development of the Kura-Araxes culture reached this culture.
This classification can be useful in analyzing the existence of trans-regional connections with the Caucasus or northwestern Iran, along with comparing the minerals of Tapeh Kelar pottery with the petrology of Kelardasht region. In this research, the authors have studied Kura-Araxes pottery obtained from the excavations of Tapeh Kelar site based on petrographic method.
This research is based on two questions. The first question of this research is that according to the minerals in Kura-Araxes and Middle Bronze Age pottery, what are the similarities or differences between them? And the second question includes the question that based on the petrographic study of the pottery samples of Tapeh Kelar, which of the ideas on how to spread the Kura-Araxes culture can be considered more logical for the emergence of this culture in the site? Based on visual evidence and cultural materials that show major changes in the transition from the Late Chalcolithic period to the Early Bronze Age, it can be expected that major changes have occurred in the field of process of pottery making and heating.
Discussion
In this study, 15 sample of potsherds obtained from excavations at Tapeh Kelar were selected. Samples were selected from Early Bronze Age (Kura-Araxes) and Middle Bronze Age contexts. Of these, 10 samples belonged to the Early Bronze Age and 5 samples belonged to the Middle Bronze.
10 samples of the Early Bronze Age were selected for the study. Samples can be divided into two main categories based on texture: samples with porphyry (coarse-grained) texture and samples with silty (fine-grained) texture. 9 samples have porphyry and coarse-grained texture and only sample number 4 has silty texture. 5 samples of pottery belong to the Middle Bronze Age. The samples have a dark background and a dark color.
Two types of silty tissue (samples 2, 4 and 5) and porphyry can be seen in the samples. Minerals detected in the samples are: quartz (clear and cloudy), plagioclase, amphibole and pyroxene, iron oxide, mica, Intrusive and extrusive volcanic rocks, silt and shale, chalcedony, agate and nepheline.
In the studied samples, some minerals are interesting. Nephline is rare in Iran. In Iran, due to the scarcity of alumina and other items that required nepheline, this mineral was importef from other countries due to its scarcity. Since the 1960s, several sources of nepheline have been reported in the northwest, such as Kalibar, Razgah, Bozqush, and Azarshahr.
Two other regions, namely the north of Shahroud and the central Alborz region, also have this mineral. In the north and northeast of Shahroud city in the Sultan Meidan area, the presence of nepheline mineral has been reported. However, due to the fact that the spread of Kura-Araxes culture was not to Shahroud city, the existence of Shahroud nepheline mineral has no role in the subject of this article. The third region, which is the central Alborz, is important in two ways: first, this mineral has been reported in it, and second, the Taph Kelar site is also located in the same region. As mentioned, in the geological map of Marzanabad sheet, the existence of nepheline mineral is mentioned.
Conclusion
The results of this study, as well as studies conducted elsewhere; show that each region has a regional diversity that itself indicates the local production of Kura-Araxes pottery. If that Kura-Araxes pottery was produced in one or more workshops in the motherland of the culture and then shipped to other areas, these potteries should not be so different and heterogeneous.
Nevertheless, two points should be considered: First, the studied site (Tapeh Kelar) may not be the oldest Kura-Araxes site in Alborz. In addition, ripple in the stream theory must be considered. The time difference between the region of origin of culture and distant regions has lasted for more than two hundred years.
In this theory, the spread of Kura-Araxes culture has been gradual and in several waves and stages, so it is possible that this expansion, even if it is due to migration from the Caucasus, is different from the Caucasus region in terms of mineralogical structure. This study shows that long-distance and direct exchange in the spread of Kura-Araxes culture to the Kelardasht area is not approved.
For better results, it is necessary to obtain more information, especially in archaeological site that transition from the Late Chalcolithic period to the early Bronze Age is uninterrupted, and also genetic studies on human remains of such sites to genetic changes in the inhabitants of the areas in the transition from the Late Chalcolithic Period to the Early Bronze Age Evaluated.
Sara Dadpour, Sajede Kharabati, Mozhdeh Rahimi,
year 7, Issue 25 (12-2023)
year 7, Issue 25 (12-2023)
Abstract
Abstract
The risk of deterioration and destruction threatens valuable traditional housing in the historical texture of villages. Identifying the architectural types of historical houses and analyzing their sustainability are necessary to protect traditional architectural values and use them in contemporary housing designs. While there are many studies on the typology of traditional houses and the sustainability of rural housing, the analysis of architectural types of houses has been less considered. Also, the architectural types of the valuable houses in the historical texture of Yase Chai Village have not been still extracted and analyzed. Therefore, the main research questions are, what are the architectural types of historical houses in Yase Chai Village? And what is the priority of the architectural types of historical houses in Yase Chai village regarding sustainability? This study also aims to identify the architectural types of houses in the historical texture of Yase Chai Village, Chaharmahal, and Bakhtiari Province and to prioritize them based on sustainability. The rural housing sustainability indicators were extracted to achieve the purpose of the research, first by reviewing research and using the qualitative content analysis method. Then, the similarities and differences of the houses in terms of macro-, meso-, and micro-scale characteristics were examined and based on them, six types were identified. In the next step, the identified housing types were compared and ranked based on sustainability using the analytical network process (ANP) method. The dominant architectural type of the village’s historical texture with the highest frequency has the third-highest rank for sustainability. According to the results, the greater frequency of a particular architectural type in a historical context does not necessarily indicate a preference for using that type in the construction of contemporary houses. In addition, the form and manner of establishing the living spaces and their porches on the first floor, and the number and length of the yards were the most important architectural features that distinguished the types from each other. To improve the sustainability of types and use them in contemporary housing designs, suggestions have been presented, such as granting financial facilities to create living spaces in historical houses and checking the compatibility of the rules of the village guidance [Hadi] plan with the architectural types of housing.
Keywords: Architectural Type, Valuable Historical Texture, Sustainability of Rural Housing, Qajar Era, ANP.
Introduction
Although the historical texture of Yase Chai village is registered in the list of national monuments, the architectural types of the houses have not been extracted and analyzed. Meanwhile, the new houses in the village are built without considering the architectural values of its historical texture. Also, the protection and use of sustainable architectural types of historical houses can bring about a tourism boom. This study aims to identify and prioritize architectural housing types in the historical texture of Yase Chai Village based on sustainability.
Research questions: What are the architectural types of historical houses in Yase Chai Village? And what is the priority of the architectural types of historical houses in Yase Chai village regarding sustainability?
Research method: The statistical society included all the houses in the historical texture of Yase Chai. Purposeful sampling was used and 10 prominent houses were selected as representatives of the existing valuable houses of historical texture. Identifying the architectural characteristics of each house was done in three dimensions. Then, the partial types of each characteristic were extracted by comparing and examining the similarities and differences between the samples. Six final types were obtained in the next step based on partial types. In the third step, the types were ranked based on the sustainability of rural houses through the analytic network process (ANP).
Rural Housing Sustainability Components
The components of rural housing sustainability and their criteria include physical-environmental (environmental cleanliness, harmony with nature, and climatic comfort), physical-functional (flexibility, safety, and inclusiveness), physical-aesthetic (visual proportion and vernacular identity, and sensory richness), economic (livelihood and economic costs) and socio-cultural (lifestyle and privacy).
Architectural Characteristics of Houses
Living spaces had southwest and southeast lighting. The average ratio of mass to the land area of houses is 0.8. The dominant type of the mass shape is the central courtyard. The average ratio of length to width of the main courtyards is 1.79. The average percentage ratio of open, semi-open, and closed spaces to total spaces is 18, 19, and 63%, respectively. Most of the houses (70%) had direct access from the living room to the kitchen. On the main facades, the ratio of the area of the openings to the total area of the facade on the first floor was more than twice that of the ground floor. The average minimum width of the porches in the houses was 1.8 meters, which shows the flexibility of the porches.
Final Types of Historical Houses
Six final types were extracted. Type 1, with a frequency of 50%, is the dominant type. The first floor is L-shaped and receives southwest and southeast light. In type 2, the first floor receives light from the southwest, southeast, and northeast directions and has a U shape. In type three, the first floor gets southwest and northwest light; in type four, it gets southwest and northeast light. In type 4, the forms of the first floor are two opposite rectangles. In type 5, the form of the first floor is an incomplete U, and its light is from the southwest, southeast, and northwest. Type 6 is physically a combination of types 1 and 4.
Analysis and Ranking of Types
The most sustainable types and their scores are four (0.195), six (0.176), one (0.171), five (0.164), two (0.159), and three (0.134). Therefore, the fourth type is the most appropriate type to use in the contemporary housing designs of Yase Chai. In types four, five, and six, where a part of the first floor is separate from other parts of the first floor, there is a potential to use the separate part of the first floor as a living space for tourists and increase the level of livelihood. The types one and five have fewer facades with openings than other types, increasing climate comfort. The type one is also preferable to others in terms of view control from the entrance to the courtyard. There are two courtyards separated from each other in type six, which helps to provide more privacy.
Conclusion
In this research in the first step, houses of the historical texture of Yase Chai village were investigated in terms of macro (orientation and lighting, characteristics of mass and form, characteristics of courtyards and structures, and materials), meso (system of open, semi-open, and closed spaces, functions, interior spaces, and facades), and micro-architectural characteristics (entrance, porch, and portico, and details of the building) and their partial types were extracted. In the second step, based on the partial types, six final types were obtained. Sun exposure, the form and manner of establishing the living spaces and their porches, and the features of the yards were the most important factors that distinguished the types from each other. In the third step, the types were ranked based on the physical-environmental, physical-functional, physical-aesthetic, economic, and social-cultural components and their subset criteria and indicators using the analytical network process method.
It is suggested to grant financial facilities to strengthen the structure and create living spaces in historical houses. It is also suggested to revise the rules of the village guidance plan and check their compatibility with the architectural types of the historical housing. For example, with the condition of providing proper lighting and ventilation of the interior spaces and coordinating the new designs with sustainable types, the maximum occupancy level should be increased from 60% to 80%. In addition, it is suggested to allocate financial facilities to implement new housing projects with the condition of coordination with the architectural types of the village. The results of the current study demonstrated that the greater frequency of a particular architectural type in a historical context does not necessarily indicate a preference for using that type in the construction of contemporary houses.
Acknowledgment
We are grateful to the kind residents who allowed us to visit and document their houses. This research did not receive any specific grant.
Observation Contribution
Sara Dadpour designed the concept and wrote the draft of the article, except for the research background and theoretical foundations. Sajede Kharabati wrote the research background and theoretical foundations and contributed to writing the introduction. Mozhdeh Rahimi conducted field visits and documented the houses. Mozhdeh Rahimi prepared the houses’ plans and 3D visualizations and contributed to the analysis of the architectural features of the houses. The authors’ contributions percentage is Sara Dadpour at 45%, Sajede Kharabati at 25%, and Mozhdeh Rahimi at 30%. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
The risk of deterioration and destruction threatens valuable traditional housing in the historical texture of villages. Identifying the architectural types of historical houses and analyzing their sustainability are necessary to protect traditional architectural values and use them in contemporary housing designs. While there are many studies on the typology of traditional houses and the sustainability of rural housing, the analysis of architectural types of houses has been less considered. Also, the architectural types of the valuable houses in the historical texture of Yase Chai Village have not been still extracted and analyzed. Therefore, the main research questions are, what are the architectural types of historical houses in Yase Chai Village? And what is the priority of the architectural types of historical houses in Yase Chai village regarding sustainability? This study also aims to identify the architectural types of houses in the historical texture of Yase Chai Village, Chaharmahal, and Bakhtiari Province and to prioritize them based on sustainability. The rural housing sustainability indicators were extracted to achieve the purpose of the research, first by reviewing research and using the qualitative content analysis method. Then, the similarities and differences of the houses in terms of macro-, meso-, and micro-scale characteristics were examined and based on them, six types were identified. In the next step, the identified housing types were compared and ranked based on sustainability using the analytical network process (ANP) method. The dominant architectural type of the village’s historical texture with the highest frequency has the third-highest rank for sustainability. According to the results, the greater frequency of a particular architectural type in a historical context does not necessarily indicate a preference for using that type in the construction of contemporary houses. In addition, the form and manner of establishing the living spaces and their porches on the first floor, and the number and length of the yards were the most important architectural features that distinguished the types from each other. To improve the sustainability of types and use them in contemporary housing designs, suggestions have been presented, such as granting financial facilities to create living spaces in historical houses and checking the compatibility of the rules of the village guidance [Hadi] plan with the architectural types of housing.
Keywords: Architectural Type, Valuable Historical Texture, Sustainability of Rural Housing, Qajar Era, ANP.
Introduction
Although the historical texture of Yase Chai village is registered in the list of national monuments, the architectural types of the houses have not been extracted and analyzed. Meanwhile, the new houses in the village are built without considering the architectural values of its historical texture. Also, the protection and use of sustainable architectural types of historical houses can bring about a tourism boom. This study aims to identify and prioritize architectural housing types in the historical texture of Yase Chai Village based on sustainability.
Research questions: What are the architectural types of historical houses in Yase Chai Village? And what is the priority of the architectural types of historical houses in Yase Chai village regarding sustainability?
Research method: The statistical society included all the houses in the historical texture of Yase Chai. Purposeful sampling was used and 10 prominent houses were selected as representatives of the existing valuable houses of historical texture. Identifying the architectural characteristics of each house was done in three dimensions. Then, the partial types of each characteristic were extracted by comparing and examining the similarities and differences between the samples. Six final types were obtained in the next step based on partial types. In the third step, the types were ranked based on the sustainability of rural houses through the analytic network process (ANP).
Rural Housing Sustainability Components
The components of rural housing sustainability and their criteria include physical-environmental (environmental cleanliness, harmony with nature, and climatic comfort), physical-functional (flexibility, safety, and inclusiveness), physical-aesthetic (visual proportion and vernacular identity, and sensory richness), economic (livelihood and economic costs) and socio-cultural (lifestyle and privacy).
Architectural Characteristics of Houses
Living spaces had southwest and southeast lighting. The average ratio of mass to the land area of houses is 0.8. The dominant type of the mass shape is the central courtyard. The average ratio of length to width of the main courtyards is 1.79. The average percentage ratio of open, semi-open, and closed spaces to total spaces is 18, 19, and 63%, respectively. Most of the houses (70%) had direct access from the living room to the kitchen. On the main facades, the ratio of the area of the openings to the total area of the facade on the first floor was more than twice that of the ground floor. The average minimum width of the porches in the houses was 1.8 meters, which shows the flexibility of the porches.
Final Types of Historical Houses
Six final types were extracted. Type 1, with a frequency of 50%, is the dominant type. The first floor is L-shaped and receives southwest and southeast light. In type 2, the first floor receives light from the southwest, southeast, and northeast directions and has a U shape. In type three, the first floor gets southwest and northwest light; in type four, it gets southwest and northeast light. In type 4, the forms of the first floor are two opposite rectangles. In type 5, the form of the first floor is an incomplete U, and its light is from the southwest, southeast, and northwest. Type 6 is physically a combination of types 1 and 4.
Analysis and Ranking of Types
The most sustainable types and their scores are four (0.195), six (0.176), one (0.171), five (0.164), two (0.159), and three (0.134). Therefore, the fourth type is the most appropriate type to use in the contemporary housing designs of Yase Chai. In types four, five, and six, where a part of the first floor is separate from other parts of the first floor, there is a potential to use the separate part of the first floor as a living space for tourists and increase the level of livelihood. The types one and five have fewer facades with openings than other types, increasing climate comfort. The type one is also preferable to others in terms of view control from the entrance to the courtyard. There are two courtyards separated from each other in type six, which helps to provide more privacy.
Conclusion
In this research in the first step, houses of the historical texture of Yase Chai village were investigated in terms of macro (orientation and lighting, characteristics of mass and form, characteristics of courtyards and structures, and materials), meso (system of open, semi-open, and closed spaces, functions, interior spaces, and facades), and micro-architectural characteristics (entrance, porch, and portico, and details of the building) and their partial types were extracted. In the second step, based on the partial types, six final types were obtained. Sun exposure, the form and manner of establishing the living spaces and their porches, and the features of the yards were the most important factors that distinguished the types from each other. In the third step, the types were ranked based on the physical-environmental, physical-functional, physical-aesthetic, economic, and social-cultural components and their subset criteria and indicators using the analytical network process method.
It is suggested to grant financial facilities to strengthen the structure and create living spaces in historical houses. It is also suggested to revise the rules of the village guidance plan and check their compatibility with the architectural types of the historical housing. For example, with the condition of providing proper lighting and ventilation of the interior spaces and coordinating the new designs with sustainable types, the maximum occupancy level should be increased from 60% to 80%. In addition, it is suggested to allocate financial facilities to implement new housing projects with the condition of coordination with the architectural types of the village. The results of the current study demonstrated that the greater frequency of a particular architectural type in a historical context does not necessarily indicate a preference for using that type in the construction of contemporary houses.
Acknowledgment
We are grateful to the kind residents who allowed us to visit and document their houses. This research did not receive any specific grant.
Observation Contribution
Sara Dadpour designed the concept and wrote the draft of the article, except for the research background and theoretical foundations. Sajede Kharabati wrote the research background and theoretical foundations and contributed to writing the introduction. Mozhdeh Rahimi conducted field visits and documented the houses. Mozhdeh Rahimi prepared the houses’ plans and 3D visualizations and contributed to the analysis of the architectural features of the houses. The authors’ contributions percentage is Sara Dadpour at 45%, Sajede Kharabati at 25%, and Mozhdeh Rahimi at 30%. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Conflict of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Amin Allah Kamali, Mohammad Hossein Azizi Kharanaghi, Syed Iraj Beheshti, Ali Aarab,
year 9, Issue 32 (8-2025)
year 9, Issue 32 (8-2025)
Abstract
Abstract
The slag sites under study are located in Khatam County, Yazd Province. In the archaeological surveys of Khatam County in 1400 AH, twelve metal smelting sites were identified through abundant metallic slag, and each of these sites was sampled. Petrographic analysis revealed that the predominant slag is iron, with only one instance of copper slag. The sites where metal smelting occurred, attributed to historical and Islamic periods based on pottery, exhibited evidence of iron smelting and its compounds in eleven samples. These samples contain metallic minerals such as wustite, marcasite, hematite, and magnetite. Marcasite and wustite minerals are related to smelting furnace processes and are products of mineral substances. It appears that in some mines in the region, magnetite and hematite are the predominant minerals, while in others, hematite is the predominant mineral, with a smaller amount of magnetite, which is evident in these primary minerals within the slag. Another sample related to copper slag exhibited small vesicular structures and limited copper ore minerals (chalcopyrite, digenite, and metallic copper) within the slag matrix. Alongside these primary minerals, there is a flow-like green glassy component indicating high furnace heat. The analytical results show that the MgO content in the samples is less than the amount of lime. Therefore, the limestone in this area is mainly ordinary limestone and not dolomite. Chemical analysis revealed that metal workers in this area were more successful at producing sponge iron.
Keywords: Archaeological Survey, Slag, Iron, Ancient Mining, Khatam.
Introduction
Iran has long been recognized as a center for mining and metal smelting. Archaeological evidence indicates that northern and central Iran are among the oldest centers of metallurgy in the world. The presence of rich mineral reserves in Iran, among other factors, has influenced the growth of mining and metalworking in this region (Momenzadeh, 2005). Due to the existence of various metal ores and advanced cultures in Iran, this area can be identified as one of the main hubs of technological innovation in the field of ancient mining and metalworking. Khatam County, located in the southern part of Yazd Province, holds particular significance in the realm of iron slag. One of the earliest efforts to produce steel worldwide took place in this region (Alipour et al., 2021). Considering the evidence of steel production in this area, it is essential (Alipour, 2017) to understand the role Khatam played in iron production during the Islamic and Sassanian periods. To investigate this matter, 12 sites in Khatam County were selected for studying iron slag. The main objective of this research includes petrographic and geochemical analysis of the slag to identify the type of extracted metal(s) and the extraction process and production of metal(s) at these sites. Additionally, the provision of necessary minerals for mining in this area is also under scrutiny. Historical and field research methods were employed for this study, involving the collection of data and archaeological investigations; field studies, such as topographic mapping, photography, identification of sites and metal smelting furnaces; and examination of samples using polarizing microscopes and XRF devices. This research has addressed primary inquiries related to the type of metals in slag, the mining process, and metal production at Khatam’s iron slag sites. Overall, Khatam County held significant importance in the production of metals during ancient and Islamic times. This region is recognized as one of the ancient mining and metalworking centers, and further research into the history and mining processes in this area could provide additional insights into the history of metalworking in Iran.
Discussion
Based on XRF chemical analyses of the slag, the results indicate that the majority of the mineral content in these slags consists of iron ore, with only one case showing the presence of copper. The CaO concentrations in these slags range from 3.59 to 28.41%, and an increase in CaO leads to the production of calcium-rich olivine. The type of slag (flow, permeable, massive, or furnace bottom) significantly impacts the results of chemical analysis and the ratio of oxides of the main elements (metallic oxides and silica). Additionally, the high amount of CaO facilitates the formation of a calcium-rich silicate phase. Petrographic microscopy studies confirm these findings, revealing observable olivine phases and primary silicate phases with metallic iron minerals such as magnetite and hematite. Due to the silica content, the addition of limestone to the smelting process increases the amount of duplex iron (Fe3O4). Consequently, silica stabilizes triplex iron oxide (hematite), while limestone stabilizes spinel iron oxide (magnetite). Moreover, microscopic examinations primarily reveal metallic minerals such as magnetite and metallic iron. Furthermore, sponge iron, like many other ancient civilizations in the region under study, was produced. The production of this type of iron requires less technical knowledge than other types of iron (Abbasnejad, 2009).
Surveying the region revealed that plants such as pistachios and wild almond produce high-quality charcoal. Since blacksmiths have no idea about using additional limestone in the furnace, the smelted slags were highly adhesive, leading to significant iron loss. The use of limestone in iron removal creates slags with fine properties that are easily separated from the iron (Abbasnejad, 2009). A good slag resulting from smelting should contain 30 to 40% limestone. Tests conducted on iron ore in this region show limestone percentages ranging from 3.59 to 28.41%. The slag analysis results also indicate a small amount of limestone, averaging approximately 11.38%. The deficiency of these two elements in slag, as they play crucial roles in reducing smelting heat and separating iron from slag, can indicate high iron levels and the inadequacy of slag (adhesiveness, viscosity, high density), resulting in low-quality sponge iron. The percentage of Fe2O3 ranges from 23.20 to 74.25%, and the percentage of Al2O3 ranges from 0.003 to 0.94%. The percentage of MgO in the tested slags is less than 0.003%. According to the mineral analysis, the most important iron minerals in this region include hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4). Due to technical flaws in these furnaces, sponge iron contains impurities such as silica, phosphorus, aluminum oxide, manganese oxide, and other metallic oxides, as confirmed by various tests conducted on ore and slag.
Conclusion
Eleven samples from the metal smelting site showed evidence of iron smelting and its compounds. In these samples, metallic ores such as wustite, marcasite, hematite, and magnetite are observed. Marcasite and wustite ores are related to smelting furnace processes and are mineral byproducts. It seems that in some mines in the region, magnetite and hematite are predominant, while in others, hematite is less prevalent, and magnetite dominates. Additionally, in the sample related to copper smelting slag, small and limited vesicles of copper ores (covellite, digenite, and metallic copper) are observed alongside a part of the green glassy matrix, indicating high furnace heat. This primary mineral evidence is observed in the slags. Considering the changes in the calcium oxide (CaO) concentration, it can be inferred that this substance was added during smelting operations to aid in smelting and reduce the temperature of the furnace materials. The microscopic results of some slags reveal primary minerals, mostly hematite and magnetite metallic ores, indicating a magmatic origin for the utilized minerals. The percentages of silica (SiO2), magnesium, and aluminum in these slags are relatively low. Analyses of these slags and iron stones from this region show that a deficiency of CaO and SiO2 leads to iron loss in the slag while increasing the iron content within it.
Based on this research, it is likely that iron ore was extracted from mines near the site and was subsequently transported to this location. Given the presence of iron mines at distances of 8, 10, and 15 kilometers from these sites, these mines are likely the source of these slags. Regarding the archaeology of the region, historical references indicate that the area held significance and prominence in various historical periods, particularly during historical and Islamic eras. However, due to insufficient information about the archaeology of the region and the lack of precise dating of these sites, accurate dating of these sites is unfeasible.
The slag sites under study are located in Khatam County, Yazd Province. In the archaeological surveys of Khatam County in 1400 AH, twelve metal smelting sites were identified through abundant metallic slag, and each of these sites was sampled. Petrographic analysis revealed that the predominant slag is iron, with only one instance of copper slag. The sites where metal smelting occurred, attributed to historical and Islamic periods based on pottery, exhibited evidence of iron smelting and its compounds in eleven samples. These samples contain metallic minerals such as wustite, marcasite, hematite, and magnetite. Marcasite and wustite minerals are related to smelting furnace processes and are products of mineral substances. It appears that in some mines in the region, magnetite and hematite are the predominant minerals, while in others, hematite is the predominant mineral, with a smaller amount of magnetite, which is evident in these primary minerals within the slag. Another sample related to copper slag exhibited small vesicular structures and limited copper ore minerals (chalcopyrite, digenite, and metallic copper) within the slag matrix. Alongside these primary minerals, there is a flow-like green glassy component indicating high furnace heat. The analytical results show that the MgO content in the samples is less than the amount of lime. Therefore, the limestone in this area is mainly ordinary limestone and not dolomite. Chemical analysis revealed that metal workers in this area were more successful at producing sponge iron.
Keywords: Archaeological Survey, Slag, Iron, Ancient Mining, Khatam.
Introduction
Iran has long been recognized as a center for mining and metal smelting. Archaeological evidence indicates that northern and central Iran are among the oldest centers of metallurgy in the world. The presence of rich mineral reserves in Iran, among other factors, has influenced the growth of mining and metalworking in this region (Momenzadeh, 2005). Due to the existence of various metal ores and advanced cultures in Iran, this area can be identified as one of the main hubs of technological innovation in the field of ancient mining and metalworking. Khatam County, located in the southern part of Yazd Province, holds particular significance in the realm of iron slag. One of the earliest efforts to produce steel worldwide took place in this region (Alipour et al., 2021). Considering the evidence of steel production in this area, it is essential (Alipour, 2017) to understand the role Khatam played in iron production during the Islamic and Sassanian periods. To investigate this matter, 12 sites in Khatam County were selected for studying iron slag. The main objective of this research includes petrographic and geochemical analysis of the slag to identify the type of extracted metal(s) and the extraction process and production of metal(s) at these sites. Additionally, the provision of necessary minerals for mining in this area is also under scrutiny. Historical and field research methods were employed for this study, involving the collection of data and archaeological investigations; field studies, such as topographic mapping, photography, identification of sites and metal smelting furnaces; and examination of samples using polarizing microscopes and XRF devices. This research has addressed primary inquiries related to the type of metals in slag, the mining process, and metal production at Khatam’s iron slag sites. Overall, Khatam County held significant importance in the production of metals during ancient and Islamic times. This region is recognized as one of the ancient mining and metalworking centers, and further research into the history and mining processes in this area could provide additional insights into the history of metalworking in Iran.
Discussion
Based on XRF chemical analyses of the slag, the results indicate that the majority of the mineral content in these slags consists of iron ore, with only one case showing the presence of copper. The CaO concentrations in these slags range from 3.59 to 28.41%, and an increase in CaO leads to the production of calcium-rich olivine. The type of slag (flow, permeable, massive, or furnace bottom) significantly impacts the results of chemical analysis and the ratio of oxides of the main elements (metallic oxides and silica). Additionally, the high amount of CaO facilitates the formation of a calcium-rich silicate phase. Petrographic microscopy studies confirm these findings, revealing observable olivine phases and primary silicate phases with metallic iron minerals such as magnetite and hematite. Due to the silica content, the addition of limestone to the smelting process increases the amount of duplex iron (Fe3O4). Consequently, silica stabilizes triplex iron oxide (hematite), while limestone stabilizes spinel iron oxide (magnetite). Moreover, microscopic examinations primarily reveal metallic minerals such as magnetite and metallic iron. Furthermore, sponge iron, like many other ancient civilizations in the region under study, was produced. The production of this type of iron requires less technical knowledge than other types of iron (Abbasnejad, 2009).
Surveying the region revealed that plants such as pistachios and wild almond produce high-quality charcoal. Since blacksmiths have no idea about using additional limestone in the furnace, the smelted slags were highly adhesive, leading to significant iron loss. The use of limestone in iron removal creates slags with fine properties that are easily separated from the iron (Abbasnejad, 2009). A good slag resulting from smelting should contain 30 to 40% limestone. Tests conducted on iron ore in this region show limestone percentages ranging from 3.59 to 28.41%. The slag analysis results also indicate a small amount of limestone, averaging approximately 11.38%. The deficiency of these two elements in slag, as they play crucial roles in reducing smelting heat and separating iron from slag, can indicate high iron levels and the inadequacy of slag (adhesiveness, viscosity, high density), resulting in low-quality sponge iron. The percentage of Fe2O3 ranges from 23.20 to 74.25%, and the percentage of Al2O3 ranges from 0.003 to 0.94%. The percentage of MgO in the tested slags is less than 0.003%. According to the mineral analysis, the most important iron minerals in this region include hematite (Fe2O3) and magnetite (Fe3O4). Due to technical flaws in these furnaces, sponge iron contains impurities such as silica, phosphorus, aluminum oxide, manganese oxide, and other metallic oxides, as confirmed by various tests conducted on ore and slag.
Conclusion
Eleven samples from the metal smelting site showed evidence of iron smelting and its compounds. In these samples, metallic ores such as wustite, marcasite, hematite, and magnetite are observed. Marcasite and wustite ores are related to smelting furnace processes and are mineral byproducts. It seems that in some mines in the region, magnetite and hematite are predominant, while in others, hematite is less prevalent, and magnetite dominates. Additionally, in the sample related to copper smelting slag, small and limited vesicles of copper ores (covellite, digenite, and metallic copper) are observed alongside a part of the green glassy matrix, indicating high furnace heat. This primary mineral evidence is observed in the slags. Considering the changes in the calcium oxide (CaO) concentration, it can be inferred that this substance was added during smelting operations to aid in smelting and reduce the temperature of the furnace materials. The microscopic results of some slags reveal primary minerals, mostly hematite and magnetite metallic ores, indicating a magmatic origin for the utilized minerals. The percentages of silica (SiO2), magnesium, and aluminum in these slags are relatively low. Analyses of these slags and iron stones from this region show that a deficiency of CaO and SiO2 leads to iron loss in the slag while increasing the iron content within it.
Based on this research, it is likely that iron ore was extracted from mines near the site and was subsequently transported to this location. Given the presence of iron mines at distances of 8, 10, and 15 kilometers from these sites, these mines are likely the source of these slags. Regarding the archaeology of the region, historical references indicate that the area held significance and prominence in various historical periods, particularly during historical and Islamic eras. However, due to insufficient information about the archaeology of the region and the lack of precise dating of these sites, accurate dating of these sites is unfeasible.
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