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Moradi H, Nikzad M. (2024). Human Interaction with Arid and Semi-Arid Environments: A Reflection on Traditional Methods of Water Management and Exploitation in Neyriz Plain, Fars Province, Iran. Parseh J. Archaeol. Stud.. 7(26), 339-362. doi:10.22034/PJAS.7.26.339
URL: http://journal.richt.ir/mbp/article-1-451-en.html

Abstract
Some forms of water resources management and irrigation are necessary for forming permanent human habitats and harvesting prosperous agricultural products in the warm and arid regions of West Asia and the Mediterranean, with annual precipitation of less than 200 mm, which usually has no permanent rivers. The survival and success of societies in warm and arid regions rely on complex environmental management systems, especially water resource management and a flexible and compatible lifestyle. Due to the lack of permanent water resources and insufficient precipitation, communities in arid and semi-arid areas have built structures such as qanats, canals, dams, and pools to manage and exploit water resources. These structures follow the geographical, geological, and topographical conditions for water resources exploitation. The Neyriz Plain in the east of Fars province is one of the arid regions with limited annual rainfall. It does not have a permanent river and uses a system to exploit water resources, in which aquifers (underground water sources) play a fundamental role. According to the region’s ecosystem and the results of the archeological survey of the area, it was determined that human society development, from the past to pre-modern, in this plain has depended on the development and management of water-related systems, especially qanats. This research seeks to find the factors affecting the water resource exploitation pattern as the most critical variable affecting the livelihood and settlement pattern in the Neyriz Plain. Furthermore, the evidence related to water resource management has been investigated according to the geological and topography conditions of the region. The results show a direct relationship between the livelihood and the management pattern of water resources, vastly influencing the distribution and type of settlements (nomadic or sedentary). 
Keywords: Neyriz Plain, Arid Regions, Aquifer, Geology, Qanat.

Introduction
Neyriz Plain is located about 200 km east of Shiraz, between Fars and Kerman provinces. This sedimentary plain, with an area of about 240 square kilometers, is relatively flat and has a gentle slope from east to west. The highest elevation of the plain is 1615 meters above sea level in the east of the plain, and the lowest is 1557 meters above sea level, near Bakhtegan Lake in the west. Neyriz Plain is surrounded by north, east, and south heights and reaches Bakhtegan Lake from the west. Bakhtegan Lake has salty water, and its infiltration into the underground aquifers has caused the salinity of its resources (Afrasiabi and Sedghi ASL, 2015: 7). Neyriz Plain in the east of Fars province was archaeologically studied in an opportunity available in 2016. During this survey, special attention was paid to the traditional water resource management structures, including qanats, distributors, pools, sites, and castle villages, along with the registration of ancient sites. 
This research investigated the historical importance of water in forming and developing settlements, focusing on the traditional methods of managing and exploiting water resources in dry areas for agricultural purposes, how to exploit water resources, and the factors affecting it in Neyriz Plain. According to the archaeological evidence, these methods seem to have made settlement possible in the Neyriz Plain since at least the Achaemenid or post-Achaemenid period (Moradi et al. 2017: 338).
The research method in this article is analytical-descriptive. During the field survey, the structures related to managing and exploiting water resources were identified and recorded in the first step. Due to the relatively large length of the qanat system, satellite images were used to understand the general situation and reconstruct the destroyed parts. For this purpose, the aerial photos of 1956 and 1968 of the mapping organization of Neyriz Plain were georeferenced. The information about the route of qanats, pools, and their destroyed parts was completed based on them. In addition, to complete the information obtained from the field studies, interviews were conducted with local people with knowledge in this field. 
The primary approach of this research was to record and accurately describe the documents related to the traditional management of water resources in the Neyriz Plain and to understand the relationship between them and the establishments identified in the survey. For better analysis and comprehension, the information was integrated using the Geographical Information System (GIS) along with the location information of the identified settlement areas.

Discussion
Without a permanent river, the Neyriz Plain depends on springs and qanats to provide water sources for its settlements in the pre-modern era. The springs in the northern and southern highlands of Neyriz Plain generally have limited water supply and often do not reach the plain’s level. For productivity, structures, including streams and pools, are built along their path to direct the water to the fields. Streams and pools are made of rubble, and plaster or mortar is used as a coating. The old pool of Lai-Hana and the Haji-Abad water supply system are located in the southern highlands, and the Deh-Fazel water supply system is located in the northern highlands of Neyriz Plain. These are among the facilities for controlling, directing, and consuming water from Neyriz Plain springs.
Qanats with more water than springs can be seen in almost all parts of the plain, and generally, they can be classified into three groups: qanats of mountain, semi-mountain, and plain. Mountainous and semi-mountainous qanats have limited water supply and are exploited by building pools and streams. The qanats of Neyriz Plain with more water are grouped into two groups. The first group is not far from the most crucial alluvial fan of the Neyriz Plain in the mouth of Hourgan. 
The aquifer of this group is located on the northern slope of the Tarbour Formation, which strengthens underground resources with the presence of the main Zagros Fault. The second group of qanats reached the fields west of Neyriz Plain with a length of 5-15 km by exploiting the aquifers formed in the slopes of the north and south of the plain and west of Neyriz City. Shadabakht and Khobar qanats (Figure 12), with a length of less than five kilometers, are in this group and considered the most water-rich Qanats in the Neyriz plain. They reach the neighborhoods of Neyriz City and the Qal-e Mohammad Khan and Qal-e Haj-Hossein by irrigating the gardens and fields (ّFigure 11). There are four mills on the route of Shadabakht Qanat and one mill on the way of Khabar Qanat, which is located before the distributor of these two qanats.
After the distributor, Shadabakht Qanat through six streams, and Khobar Qanat through five streams, direct water to the gardens and fields and supplies drinking water to three important neighborhoods of Neyriz City (Bazar, Kouche Bala (Sadat) and Chenarshahi). In some places where the course of the streams meets the canals, a trap has been built for water to pass, which transfers the water to the other side of the canal. Also, other works, such as a bathhouse and reservoir (pond), have been identified in Neyriz neighborhoods, which show a great connection with the route of the qanat stream (Moradi, 2016: 323-337). 

Conclusion
Effective water resource management and utilization are crucial for agricultural success in arid and semi-arid regions of Western Asia and the Mediterranean.
Traditional methods of water management in these regions provide valuable insights into the relationship between humans and the environment over the long term. This research focuses on the Neyriz Plain in Fars Province, serving as a case study to explore the strategies employed in harnessing water resources in arid landscapes.
The Neyriz Plain heavily relies on aquifers as fundamental water sources. The ecological conditions and archaeological findings of the region indicate that the historical development and settlement patterns of human communities have been closely tied to the development and management of traditional water systems, particularly Qanats. This research aims to identify the factors influencing the pattern of water utilization, which plays a vital role in shaping the way of life and settlement patterns in the Neyriz Plain.
The geological characteristics of the area significantly influence the water resources of the Neyriz Plain. The Tarbur limestone formation in the eastern mountains serves as a reliable underground water source, nourishing the most abundant and flourishing qanats in the city of Neyriz, the largest settlement center in the plain. Other geological units, such as the Sanandaj-Sirjan and Jahrom formations, form limited aquifers in the foothills and the plain, which require the construction of canals and reservoirs to utilize these resources effectively.
By examining the traditional water management practices in the Neyriz Plain, this research offers valuable insights into sustainable water utilization in arid landscapes. The findings have implications for resource management and can inform similar regions facing water scarcity challenges. Understanding the historical context and traditional methods of harnessing water resources can contribute to more effective and sustainable water management practices in arid and semi-arid environments.