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Garavand A, Sharifi M, Malekpuor F. (2025). Residential Architectural Spaces and the Public Hall of the Ghadkodan Site during the Parthian Period, Piranshahr Plain, West Azerbaijan. Athar. 46(109), 81-107. doi:10.22034/Athar.1912
URL: http://athar.richt.ir/article-2-1912-en.html

Abstract
Ghadkodan is a Parthian-era site in the Piranshahr region and one of the most significant settlements within the catchment area of the Kani Sib Dam in northwestern Iran. It is situated in a narrow valley between mountains on natural elevations. Archaeological excavations were conducted over three consecutive seasons in 2019, 2020, and 2021, leading to the discovery of various residential architectural spaces, including a central hall and a kitchen. During its initial phase of habitation, Ghadkodan featured large stone structures with multiple architectural units characteristic of the Parthian period. In later times, it was repurposed as a cemetery during the Islamic period. Comparative analysis of Soghanlu pottery reveals stylistic affinities with Parthian cultural materials previously recovered from contemporaneous sites in the same geographical area. The results of excavations, covering a 23 × 15 m (345 m²) area, confirm that Ghadkodan represents the remains of a Parthian settlement. These substantial architectural structures, located within a settlement layer lacking historical continuity, were constructed from limestone rubble bound with mud mortar. Overall, based on the cultural materials recovered and an assessment of the ecological and geographical characteristics of the region, it is evident that the architectural style of Ghadkodan aligns closely with other Parthian-period remains. The architectural texture reflects a purely functional design, devoid of ornamental decoration. This study is based on newly documented data obtained from recent archaeological excavations.
Keywords: Northwest, Little Zab Basin, Architectural Remains, Parthian Period.

Introduction
The Parthians were one of the tribes belonging to the Dahi confederation, nomadizing in the desert region situated between the lower Oxus River (Amu Darya) and the Caspian Sea. The Dahi interacted with the Massagetae and other tribes, whether immigrants or settled inhabitants of Central Asian villages. The term Parth is attested in inscriptions from the early Sasanian dynasty. Local populations continued to speak the Parthian language until the mid-4th century CE in southern Turkmenistan (including Margiana) and northeastern Iran (Media, Khorasan, and Sistan). Parthian expansion under Mithradates I (Mehrdad I, 171–139 BCE) restored much of the ancient Achaemenid Empire, positioning the Parthians, as Ghirshman suggested, as a connecting link between the Achaemenid and Sasanian dynasties. Archaeological excavations at Shahr-i Qumis, very probably the historic Hecatompylos located along the “Great Khorasan Road” in the Damghan region, uncovered hundreds of clay vessels spanning from the early 1st millennium BCE through the Achaemenid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods. Chinese historical records, likely dating to the 2nd century CE, describe Parthia (Anxi) as follows:
 “The main center of the Kingdom of Anxi [Parthia] is the town of Hedu [Hecatompylos]… [Parthia] is several thousand li across. There are several hundred small towns.” 
The political consolidation of Parthia under Mithradates I was accompanied by territorial expansion to include major cities such as Seleucia-on-the-Tigris, Dura Europos, and Susa. Finds from Shahr-i Qumis have helped establish its chronology. Notably, seven coins attributed to Orodes I (ca. 80–77 BCE) or his immediate predecessor were recovered from Area VII, along with ostraca bearing Parthian inscriptions, apparently records of monetary donations similar to those found at Ak-depe and other sites in southern Turkmenistan. Sixteen significant seals were discovered in Area V (Bivar 1981). While Shahr-i Qumis may have functioned as a major political and military center, it was one of several strategically positioned Parthian fortresses in northeastern Iran. Other important archaeological discoveries from this period have been made along the Gorgan Wall and in defensive castles on the Gorgan Plain, a region significant during the Achaemenid era and subsequently under the Sasanians. The Ghadkodan site is situated in the central part of Piranshahr, approximately one kilometer northwest of the crown of the Sib Mineral Dam. It comprises two main areas: a northern hill and a southern relatively flat section, located on an almost oval ridge aligned north–south. The northern part is a high hill bordered to the north and east by the agricultural and alluvial lands of the Little Zab River with steep slopes; to the west by natural ridges with gentle slopes; and to the south by the ancient Ghadkodan site. The southern section is relatively flat, bordered to the north by the ancient hill slope; to the south and west by natural ridges and agricultural lands with gentle slopes; and to the east by an apple orchard with a relatively steep slope.

Discussion 
Despite the significance of Parthian architecture, our understanding of this period, particularly its smaller-scale buildings remain incomplete. This gap is especially pronounced in the study of residential architecture. Consequently, no definitive stylistic framework can yet be associated with such structures. Factors such as the scarcity of large-scale excavations, environmental diversity, and regional traditions complicate efforts to reconstruct the architectural characteristics of the middle strata of Parthian society. Limited archaeological research in the region has resulted in minimal knowledge about the cultural traditions prevalent during this era. The extensive area of Ghadkodan encompasses numerous residential architectural spaces which, based on ceramic typology studies, are conclusively dated to the Parthian period. The multiplicity of these spaces indicates prolonged habitation during this time. Furthermore, the public hall at Ghadkodan underscores the site’s importance, likely serving as a venue for special gatherings or ceremonial events. Overall, excavations revealed a total of 13 architectural units of varying dimensions and layouts, providing rare and valuable insights into settlement organization and communal space usage during the Parthian period.

Conclusion 
This study sought to identify the cultural traditions of the Little Zab River region and to establish a relative chronology of the material culture within this basin. The findings reveal a clear cultural connection between Ghadkodan, Piranshahr, and other contemporaneous sites in the northwestern cultural basins, including Yazdgerd Castle and Baarveh. Recent excavations at Ghadkodan have uncovered substantial architectural remains from the Parthian period, an extensive architectural texture embedded within a settlement layer lacking earlier occupation or subsequent continuity. These structures were constructed from limestone rubble bound with mud mortar, comprising centralized rooms and stone walls. Culturally, Ghadkodan appears to have been among the most prosperous and expansive settlements in the Little Zab River basin. Its architectural remains are dispersed across both the central site and extensive peripheral zones. Residential units feature simple layouts consisting of rectangular rooms built from rubble and river stones of varying sizes. The presence of a public hall underscores the site’s prominence, especially given that, while monumental buildings such as palaces and temples from the Parthian period are well-studied, smaller-scale residential architecture remains comparatively underrepresented. In this regard, Ghadkodan stands out as a model of locally adapted architectural style. The proximity of the Little Zab River, a reliable water source, played a crucial role in the establishment and longevity of Ghadkodan. Environmental resources from the river supported both agriculture and livestock farming, fostering favorable living conditions that stimulated long-term habitation along its banks from prehistoric times onward. These conditions contributed to the development of indigenous and localized cultural traditions in the region. Architecturally, the settlement’s spaces can be categorized into inner and outer sections, composed of rectangular or square enclosures separated by one to several rows of stone walls. Ultimately, evidence indicates that Ghadkodan was abandoned at the end of the Parthian period and was never reoccupied.