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Fadaei H, Kamali A, Karami H. (2025). Resilience of the Parse-Pasargadae World Heritage Sites Against Environmental Crises Using Achaemenid Creativity and Traditional Knowledge. Athar. 45(107), 5-40. doi:10.22034/45.107.1
URL: http://athar.richt.ir/article-2-1711-en.html

Abstract
Drought and excessive water extraction resulting from the agricultural policies of past decades in the plains of Marvdasht and Pasargadae have led to cracks, sinkholes, and a spongy soil texture, ultimately causing a general subsidence of the plains' surface. These phenomena pose a significant threat to the historic region and valuable world heritage sites. Today, revisiting the creativity employed to manage or overcome the destructive impacts of the natural environment can serve as a model for overcoming regional crises. The main objective of this research is to understand the creativity and traditional knowledge during the Achaemenid period in order to overcome environmental crises. The essential question is: what role did the traditional engineering and knowledge of this period play in managing crises such as floods and earthquakes? In general, ensuring sustainable water resources in the Parse-Pasargadae region, as a crucial part of the Achaemenid Empire, was of great importance. The development of agriculture in these areas was dependent on the enhancement of irrigation systems to supply water for cultivated lands. Thus, Achaemenid designers and engineers, to manage droughts a constant crisis in the semi-arid regions of Iran and to overcome seasonal flash floods, designed and implemented an extensive system of water control, storage, and transfer across the plains of Pasargadae and Marvdasht. Understanding these integrated water systems today can reveal the roots of heritage resilience over time, offering valuable lessons. Additionally, considering the region's seismic activity, employing appropriate engineering in the selection, transport, and implementation of materials including the use of large stone blocks in architecture, multi-layered stone foundations and floors, and enhancing the load-bearing capacity of building bases was among the creative methods used to increase the stability of structures. This study was conducted based on field investigations and the review of relevant historical documents and records. Through necessary analyses, efforts were made to elucidate the role of engineering in the Achaemenid period in overcoming environmental challenges. The results of the research indicate that understanding and reapplying past technical knowledge can not only restore and sustain human coexistence with the natural environment and its hazards but also provide suitable solutions for protecting the content of heritage resources, ensuring their authenticity.
Keywords: Traditional Knowledge, Creativity, Resilience, Crisis Management, Parse-Pasargadae World Heritage Sites.

Introduction
With the establishment of the largest empire of the ancient world during the Achaemenid period, two major capitals, Pasargadae and Persepolis, were founded in Fars by Cyrus the Great and later by Darius (Shobairi, 2017: 58). The fertile lands, abundant water resources, and the temperate, favorable climate of the Pasargadae plain were among the natural blessings that led to the selection of this location and the foundation of some of the most significant monuments of the Achaemenid civilization. The Polvar River also provided a natural route between Pasargadae and Persepolis. The abundant water of the Polvar River indicated the existence of numerous gardens and settlements in the region (Sami, 1996: 10). The site of Persepolis was constructed at the western end of the sacred Mount Mehr (or Rahmat) and overlooks the Marv Dasht plain (ancient Parse), which shows evidence of settlement as early as the fifth millennium BCE (Karami, 2017: 16; Zeidi, 2017: 34). According to historical documents, the ancient plain of Parse was fertile and enjoyed a pleasant climate. Furthermore, it was rich in forests, orchards, abundant water, and pastures for horses. The Persepolis clay tablets also confirm these characteristics (Sumner, 1968: 18). Remnants of irrigation systems have been observed in the surrounding areas of Persepolis as well (Afkhkami & Khosravi, 2018: 28).
Unfortunately, repeated droughts and excessive groundwater extraction in the Parse–Pasargadae region have led to land subsidence and the formation of deep fissures around sites such as Persepolis and Naqsh-e Rostam, posing serious threats to these invaluable historical complexes (Raeisi-Ardekani, 2010). The main cause of land subsidence in sedimentary basins of arid and semi-arid regions is the overexploitation of groundwater resources (Pacheco et al., 2006). In addition to this, occasional flash floods caused by climate change threaten the very foundations of many cultural heritage sites. The Achaemenid innovations in overcoming environmental adversities are crucial topics that, if properly understood today, can guide not only the physical conservation of these unique heritages but also offer important lessons for living in harmony with nature and enhancing resilience to modern environmental challenges. Therefore, a principal aim of the present study is to revisit the ancient innovations employed during the Achaemenid period in the Parse–Pasargadae region to control or overcome major regional crises such as floods and earthquakes. By studying previous research, historical sources, and conducting field surveys and documentation, this research introduces, analyzes, and evaluates some aspects of traditional Achaemenid engineering in the geographical context of Parse–Pasargadae as a model for sustainable heritage conservation.

Discussion
The most important surface water resources of the region are the Kor and Sivand (Polvar) Rivers, which irrigate many plains along their course (Fig. 1). Thus, agriculture—the fundamental basis of the economy of ancient civilizations—developed in fertile plains such as Parse and Pasargadae. However, agriculture during the Achaemenid period would have been highly challenging and economically unjustifiable without systematic irrigation (Shobairi, 2017: 62). Consequently, Achaemenid designers and engineers developed and implemented an extensive system of water control, storage, and transfer across the Pasargadae plain and its surroundings. The construction of this system, including a series of dams, barriers, and a wide network of water canals, faced numerous complexities and difficulties, yet was executed successfully through wise planning and management. This approach fostered resilience in settlement and agricultural activities against environmental hazards. Part of the architectural science and structural engineering in Iranian architecture, including during the Achaemenid period, focused on resilience against the constant threat of earthquakes. Therefore, during the Achaemenid era, it was essential to devise and apply measures to mitigate earthquake impacts. The use of durable materials along with architectural techniques was among the strategies employed by Achaemenid architects to withstand natural adversities like earthquakes and to ensure the resilience and longevity of architectural monuments.
The craftsmanship and precision of the stonecutters in joining stone blocks were so refined that the joints were sometimes imperceptible, creating an integrated appearance between structural and decorative elements. The use of clamps between stone blocks not only prevented additional movements but also enhanced the structural integrity, thereby improving resistance against tensile forces and unforeseen shear stresses (Wright, 2005: 254). In the foundation construction of Achaemenid buildings, the load-bearing capacity of the soil was reinforced to prevent settlement, rupture, and creep within the affected zones. The use of massive and monolithic stone blocks in Achaemenid palaces, despite the challenges in transportation and assembly, significantly contributed to the unified behavior of structures during seismic events. Early examples of seismic isolation systems and effective connections between load-bearing elements to increase the stiffness of the platforms upon which palaces were built were among the methods employed during the Achaemenid period to cope with climatic adversities (Motamedmanesh, 2018: 24). Additionally, the insertion of lead sheets between stone blocks not only assisted in leveling large stone units but also played a role in reducing the slippage of stones over each other.

Conclusion
The Achaemenids' understanding of resource arrangement strategies in the Parse–Pasargadae region, combined with sound decision-making and coherent, environmentally adaptive actions, led to the creation of essential infrastructure for water resource management and mitigation of environmental crises caused by floods in the plains. Particularly in Pasargadae, the control of upstream water resources, their utilization for agricultural development, and the design and creation of the royal garden, along with the organization of garden irrigation through uniquely designed water features, all reflect precise engineering and intelligent exploitation of environmental and climatic capacities. The management behind the creation of these achievements, whose evidence endures to this day, stands as an exceptional testament to the Achaemenid art and engineering of resilience against environmental adversities, especially seasonal floods that once threatened the foundations of life and economy in the region’s fertile plains.
Seismic activity in the Parse–Pasargadae region posed another significant threat to architectural structures, particularly to the monumental buildings of Pasargadae and Persepolis. One aspect of the Achaemenid engineering response to this threat was the use of large stone blocks in construction, aimed at preventing settlement and structural failure through precise calculations and reinforcement of the load-bearing capacity of building foundations. At the same time, the coherence and flexibility of structures demonstrate a construction system well adapted to climatic conditions, with special attention given to enhancing the bearing capacity of the ground. Indeed, the durability of many of these monuments owes much to the careful consideration of climate, innovative material selection, transportation methods, and construction techniques.
The creation and enduring survival of the grand Achaemenid monuments to this day are the result of their traditional knowledge and creativity in adapting to and coexisting with nature, understanding its laws, and wisely utilizing its capacities to overcome environmental adversities. Awareness of traditional knowledge regarding the management of environmental crises offers valuable models for how humans can interact sustainably with the natural world. This reciprocal relationship between the past and the present not only strengthens cultural identity but also contributes to enhancing the resilience of cultural heritage sites in the face of contemporary environmental challenges.