fa jalali 1404 3 1 gregorian 2025 6 1 46 108 online 1 fulltext

fa پژوهشی در آرایه‌های گچی بندر تاریخی نَجیرم  نخستین نشانه‌ها از کاربرد گچ و آرایه‌های گچی از دورۀ ایلام است. از دورۀ هخامنشی برای سفیدکاری دیوارها و ستون‌های چوبی از گچ استفاده‌شده و استمرار استفاده از آرایه‌های گچی در تزئین بناها در دورۀ اشکانی است. در دورۀ ساسانی استفاد از گچ نه‌تنها به‌عنوان پوشش دیوارها به‌کار می‌رفت، بلکه به‌دلیل خاصیت شکل‌پذیری گچ، دیوارهای گلی و سنگی را زینت می‌بخشید. در این دوره روش‌های آرایه‌های گچی رو به تکامل گذاشت و در دوران اسلامی با تنوع بیشتری تداوم یافت. در سواحل شمالی خلیج‌فارس تعداد فراوانی از آرایه‌های گچی‌ دورۀ ساسانی و اوایل اسلام در بندر تاریخی سیراف توسط «وایت هاووس» معرفی شده است. در طی بررسی و شناسایی باستان‌شناسی بندر تاریخی نجیرم که در 10 کیلومتری غرب شهرستان دیر واقع‌شده است، مواد فرهنگی سطح محوطه شامل: قطعات سفال، شیشه، اشیاء فلزی، سکه و قطعات آرایه‌های گچی مورد مطالعه قرار گرفت. درمیان یافته‌های فرهنگی سطح این محوطه، قطعات آرایه‌های گچی به‌دلیل فراوانی و تنوع زیاد از اهمیت زیادی برای مطالعات باستان‌شناسی، تاریخ‌نگاری و بازسازی تاریخی بندر تاریخی نجیرم برخوردار است. در این بررسی میدانی، قطعات آرایه‌های گچی‌های دورۀ ساسانی-اوایل اسلام بر دامن تپه‌های مشرف به دریا و تعداد کمتری از ترانشۀ لایه‌نگاری جمع‌آوری گردید. در این پژوهش به مطالعۀ آرایه‌های گچی‌های مکشوف از نجیرم پرداخته و نمونه‌های موجود براساس نوع نقوش آرایه‌های گچی طبقه‌بندی خواهد شد. تنوع و تعداد زیاد قطعات آرایه‌های گچی باوجود فقدان کاوش باستان‌شناسی نشان‌دهندۀ وجود سازه‌های بزرگ مذهبی و بناهای عام‌المنفعه، رونق تجارت و ساخت بناهای فاخر در میان بافت شهری آن‌ است. آرایه‌های گچی‌ بندر تاریخی نجیرم قابل مقایسه با آرایه‌های گچی‌ سیراف در دورۀ ساسانی و سده‌های نخستین بعد از اسلام است. مهم‌ترین اهداف این پژوهش مطالعۀ نقوش به‌کار رفته در آرایه‌های گچی‌ نجیرم و طبقه‌بندی آن‌ها جهت تعیین کاربری و تاریخ‌گذاری آن‌ها است. آرایه‌های گچ‌بری بندر تاریخی نجیرم به انواع هندسی، اسلیمی، سامرا نوع C، عناصر معماری، گیاهی، نیم‌ستون، کتیبه، کاربردی و نقوش ترکیبی تقسیم می‌شوند؛ هم‌چنین مطالعۀ تکنیک ساخت و مقایسه تحلیلی نقوش با نمونه‌های مشابه در خلیج‌فارس، به‌ویژه بندر تاریخی سیراف و بردستان از دیگر اهداف این پژوهش باستان‌شناختی است.  Abstract Plaster was used to whitewash walls and wooden columns from the Achaemenid period, and the use of stucco continued to decorate buildings in the Parthian period. In the Sassanid period, plaster was used not only as a covering for walls, but also, due to the malleability of plaster, it was used to decorate mud and stone walls. During this period, plaster carving methods began to evolve and continued with greater variety in the Islamic period. On the northern coast of the Persian Gulf, a large number of plaster carvings from the Sassanid and early Islamic periods have been introduced by Whitehouse in the historical port of Siraf. During the archaeological investigation and identification of the historical port of Najirom, which is located ten kilometers west of the city of Dayer, Cultural materials on the surface of the site, including pottery fragments, glass, metal objects, coins, and plaster fragments, were studied. Among the cultural findings on the surface of this site, plaster fragments are of great importance for archaeological studies, historiography, and historical reconstruction of the historical port of Najirom due to their abundance and great diversity. In this field study, fragments of Sasanian-Early Islamic stucco carvings were collected on the slopes of hills overlooking the sea and a smaller number from stratigraphic trenches. In this research, the stucco carvings discovered from Najirom will be studied and the existing samples will be classified based on the type of stucco carvings. The variety and large number of stucco fragments, despite the lack of archaeological excavation, indicate the existence of large religious and public buildings, the prosperity of trade, and the construction of luxurious buildings within its urban fabric. The stucco carvings of the historical port of Najirom are comparable to those of Siraf in the Sassanid period and the first centuries after Islam. Keywords: Plastering, Historical Port, Najirom, Persian Gulf, Sassanid, Early Islam. Introduction This historical waterway has long been of interest to power centers within Iran and foreign powers, and the most important trade routes, especially the Silk Road, passed through this region (Tofighian, 2018: 10). Dozens of historical ports on the northern coast of the Persian Gulf reflect the maritime trade, navigation, and shipping of Iranians throughout the ancient history of this land. As a link connecting Iran’s population and economic centers with civilizations on the same horizon in the Indian subcontinent, East Africa, and East Asia, historical ports have not only been places for the exchange of goods and merchandise, but also for the exchange of customs, traditions, religion, culture, art, and music. The presence of different religions and faiths such as Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, and Shia and Sunni Muslims in the historical ports of the Persian Gulf is evidence of this claim (ibid.: 1402: 19). The most important questions of this research are as follows: 1- What is the diversity of the Najirom gypsum arrays and what are the techniques used to make them? 2- Which of the parallel ancient sites on the coasts of the Persian Gulf and Iran are the Najirom gypsum arrays comparable in terms of culture? 3- What is the dating of the Najirom historical port gypsum arrays? The most important hypotheses include the following: 1- Among the findings of the Najirom, there are a large number of broken pieces of plaster arrays, and the plaster arrays are of great variety, including geometric, Islamic, Samarra-type motifs, architectural elements, plant motifs, half-columns, inscriptions, functional and composite motifs.  2- The stucco decorations of Najirom are comparable to the historical ports of Siraf . 3- The stucco decorations of the historical port of Najirom date back to the late Sasanian period and the first half of the Islamic period. Materials and Methods In the archaeological survey and identification of Bandar Najirom in 2009 and 2013, pottery and other cultural materials such as fragments of plaster ornaments, coins, seals, beads, and metal objects were systematically collected and studied (Tofighian, 1993). The method of collecting information in this article is field research and library studies, and the research method is comparative studies with a descriptive-analytical approach to the findings from the archaeological investigation and identification of the historical port of Najirom. For this purpose, first, fragments of plaster arrays were separated, examined, and classified from among the mass of cultural materials. Then, for the purpose of comparison and relative chronology, plaster arrays from other historical ports of the Persian Gulf, including Siraf and Bardestan, were studied and compared  Data In archaeological surveys of the Najirom, countless pieces of plaster arrays were identified on the surface of the ruins of this historic site.  1-Geometric motifs The patterns of the plaster arrays of the historical port of Najirom include square, rectangular, circular, trapezoidal and triangular patterns that are repeatedly created in rectangular frames around the altar.  2- Samarra-type plaster arrays, style C Among the various plaster arrays, there is a type of plaster array called Samarra, which belongs to the Abbasid period and the first centuries after Islam.  3- The role of architectural elements Another part of the motifs of the Najirom plaster arrays is related to the role of architectural elements such as arches, arches, and corbels, which are drawn in the form of various arches, architectural niches, and decorative corbels.  4-Plant motifs Among the motifs of the Najirom plaster arrays, a larger number are related to plant motifs that are combined with other motifs. The motifs of coniferous trees, grape clusters, single leaves, repeated leaves, and the motifs of various three-petaled, four-petaled, five-petaled, and multi-petaled flowers decorate the surface of the Najirom plaster arrays. 5- Designs in the form of half-columns One of the designs in the plaster arrays of the historical port of Najirom is the designs created in the form of decorative half-columns, where geometric, plant, and Islamic designs are created on the half-columns. 6-Inscription motifs The large number of fragments of the Najirom plasterwork motifs in the form of inscriptions in Kufic script attracts attention. These inscriptions, which probably decorated the edge of the altar, include letters such as “m”, “la”, “hamd” and other letters. 7-Functional motifs  Functional motifs are another type of arrangement found in the plasterwork discovered at the historic port of Nejirom. These motifs include pieces of overlapping arches in various dimensions and sizes, which were part of the functional decorations of entrances and niches. 8- Composite motifs Most of the elaborate plasterwork arrays from the historic port of Najirom have composite motifs including plant, geometric, inscription and Islamic motifs.  Discussion In the archaeological investigation and identification of the historical port of Najirom and its 130-hectare area, broken pieces of plaster have attracted attention. These pieces of plaster arrays include geometric, Islamic, Samarra-type arrays, architectural elements, plant elements, half-columns, inscriptions, functional and composite motifs that have been created among various geometric frames. The Najirom plaster arrays are mainly used to cover the surfaces of walls, niches, doorways, and mihrabs of mosques, and are combined to create repetitive patterns. The methods of creating Najirom plaster arrays are in situ shaping and semi-embossed or low-embossed, and probably the plaster array motifs were created on the surfaces of the altar and other parts of the mosque using the Kasht-e-Bori technique. The frame method and the carving method are also other styles of creating Najirom plaster arrays. These patterns are mainly in the form of friezes or decorative strips, and a smaller number are made in the form of frames. It seems that most of the plaster arrays of Najirom belong to religious buildings and mosques, but some of the plaster arrays were separated from noble buildings and left on the surface of the site. Conclusion In the archaeological survey and identification of the historical port of Najirom and the stratigraphic survey program, 58 broken pieces of gypsum arrays were identified and studied. Among the broken pieces of gypsum arrays, 5 had geometric arrays, 4 had Islamic arrays, 3 are Samarra style arrays, 6 are architectural elements such as arches and corbels, 15 are plant arrays including various types of flowers, plants, and palm trees, 2 are half-columns decorated with geometric plant motifs, 12 have inscriptions in Kufic script and non-Kufic script, 5 have functional arrays such as tiered arches belonging to entrances and niches, and 6 have combined arrays including geometric, plant motifs, inscriptions, and other arrays. Broken pieces of plaster decorations were made from half-baked, half-pounded plaster mortar and adorned noble houses and public buildings such as mosques and altars. The plaster decorations of Najirom are comparable to the historical ports of Siraf and Bardastan in the Persian Gulf. Dating the plaster arrays of the historical port of Najirom is very difficult, given that they are mainly obtained from superficial surveys. In general, the plaster arrays of the historical port of Najirom belong to the late Sasanian period and the first half of the Islamic period. More accurate dating of the plaster arrays of Najirom requires archaeological excavation. آرایه‌های گچی, بندر تاریخی, نجیرم, خلیج‌فارس, ساسانی, اوایل اسلام. 7 37 http://athar.richt.ir/browse.php?a_code=A-10-3927-1&slc_lang=fa&sid=2 2025/01/9 1403/10/20 2025/05/1 1404/2/11 Hossein Tofighian Associate Professor of Archaeology, Marine Archeology Department, Archeology Research Institute, National Cultural Heritage and Tourism Research Institute (RICHT), Tehran, Iran حسین توفیقیان hosseintofighian1@gmail.com 0009-0005-3441-4775 Yes دانشیار پژوهشکدۀ باستان‌شناسی، پژوهشگاه میراث‌فرهنگی و گردشگری، تهران، ایران.

fa مظاهر عرف‌گرایی در هنرهای دورۀ ایلخانی با تحلیلی بر داده‌های باستان‌شناختی و تاریخی این دوره  روش‌ها و رویکردهای مختلف در مطالعۀ هنر و باستان‌شناسی دورۀ ایلخانی، نتایج گوناگون و بعضاً ضدونقیضی به‌بار آورده است؛ بااین‌وجود اکثر پژوهشگران معتقدند در آثار باقی‌مانده از این دوره، سبک‌ها، شیوه‌ها و نیروهای مختلفی تأثیرگذار بوده که با مطالعه و بررسی دقیق تا حد امکان می‌توان پارادایم‌های دخیل را شناسایی کرد. هدف پژوهش حاضر، مطالعه و تحلیل مظاهر عرف‌گرایی و مفاهیم سنتی مغولی در مهم‌ترین آثار معماری، نگارگری و سکه‌های باقی‌مانده از دورۀ ایلخانی با استناد بر مبانی جامعه‌شناسی هنر و مکاتب تکامل تاریخی و اقتصادی است. پژوهش حاضر به‌دنبال پاسخ به این پرسش است که عرفضگرایی و سنن ایلی مغولان تا چه حد و به چه نحوی در آثار موردمطالعه نمود ‌یافته است؟ این پژوهش از گونۀ پژوهش‌های کیفی است و با رویکرد توصیفی- تحلیلی به مطالعۀ داده‌ها پرداخته است. داده‌ها به روش کتابخانه‌ای و میدانی گردآوری شده است. طبق یافته‌های پژوهش، مفاهیم عرفی و ایلی مغولان اولیه بعد از شروع حملات، به‌طور کامل حذف و یا مستحیل‌نشده و در برخی موارد به مناطق غربی تصرف‌شده، ازجمله ایران منتقل‌شده و تاحدودی در آثار مختلف قابل شناسایی است. این مضامین در برخی آثار معماری، نگارگری و سکه‌های ایلخانی به‌صورت مستقیم یا غیرمستقیم نمود‌یافته است. مضامین عرفی و ایلی مغولی در نحوۀ مکان‌گزینی در تأسیس شهرهای جدید ایلخانی و مجموعه‌های معماری به تبعیت از سنن استپی، کاشت و پرورش گیاهان استپی در باغ‌ها و محوطه‌های بناها، اهمیت اردو بازارها، تأثیر از تزئینات و ساختار یورت‌های مغولی در شکل برخی از قبور ایلخانی و همچنین تأثیر مادرسالاری و رسوم سوگواری رایج در بین مغولان اولیه در مضامین برخی نگاره‌های شاهنامۀ بزرگ مغولی و مفاهیم اویغوری در عناصر بصری سکه‌های ایلخانی قابل مشاهده است. Abstract Various methods and approaches in the study of Ilkhanid art and archaeology have led to diverse and sometimes contradictory results. Nevertheless, most researchers agree that the surviving works from this period were influenced by various styles, methods, and forces, and that through detailed study and examination, the involved paradigms can be identified as much as possible. The aim of the present research is to study and analyze the manifestations of traditionalism and Mongol tribal concepts in the most important examples of Ilkhanid architecture, painting, and coinage, based on the foundations of the sociology of art and schools of historical and economic evolution. This research seeks to answer the question: To what extent and in what manner have the traditionalism and tribal traditions of the Mongols manifested in the studied works? This research is a type of qualitative research and has examined the data through a descriptive-analytical approach. The data were gathered through both library and fieldwork methods. According to the findings, the traditional and tribal concepts of the early Mongols were not entirely removed or assimilated after the onset of the invasions, and in some cases, they were transferred to the western regions they occupied, including Iran, and can be identified to some extent in various works. These themes are manifested directly or indirectly in some Ilkhanid architectural works, paintings, and coinage. Mongol traditional and tribal themes are evident in the selection of sites for the establishment of new Ilkhanid cities and architectural complexes, in accordance with steppe traditions; in the planting and cultivation of steppe plants in gardens and building grounds; the importance of Ordu Bazars; the influence of the decorations and structure of Mongolian yurts in the form of certain Ilkhanid tombs; as well as the influence of matriarchy and mourning customs common among early Mongols in the themes of some illustrations from the Great Mongol Shahnameh and the presence of Uyghur concepts in the visual elements of Ilkhanid coins. Keywords: Ilkhanid Period, Traditionalism, Mongol Tribal Traditions, Sociology of Art. Introduction Sociology of art, through its study of art, seeks to uncover and demonstrate the social influences on it. Understanding the characteristics of society in any given time period, and the role of society in the emergence and transformation of artistic subjects, involves analyzing how various economic, political, social, and other factors influence art. It also examines how art shapes, evolves, or declines in each society, uncovering the impact of different social and political elements on artistic works, with the goal of obtaining a deeper understanding of the studied society. This inherently sociological approach is articulated by Rauderad (2015). According to the reflectionist approach in sociology of art, the content of an artwork is directly related to the historical, social, and other characteristics of the period in which it was created (Duvenio, 2020). Although the Mongols, influenced by the civilizations of China, Iran, and others, distanced themselves from their early traditions, elements of their old tribal customs and traditions persisted within these newly conquered territories, particularly during the Ilkhanid period. Alongside the feudal system (Hicks, 1976: 27-28) and bureaucracy (Razavi, 2011: 69-70), manifestations of these ancient and tribal customs can be found, and they can be analyzed through careful study of the historical and material sources that have survived. Despite extensive research in the fields of Ilkhanid art, architecture, and archaeology, no study has been conducted on analyzing and identifying Mongol and Uyghur themes in the arts of this period. Existing studies are limited to brief mentions in various books. The aim of the present research is to examine, analyze, and identify the manifestations of Mongol tribalism and traditionalism in Ilkhanid art in Iran, and to explore how these themes are reflected in the significant works of architecture, painting, and coinage from this period. This research is important because, until now, no independent study has been conducted on the discovery of Mongol traditional and tribal elements in the archaeological and artistic data from this era. Previous works have only touched on these themes briefly. To achieve the research goal, the following question arises: To what extent and in what manner have the manifestations of traditionalism and Mongol themes been reflected in the key architectural, painting, and coinage works of the Ilkhanid period, and how can they be traced? This study is qualitative in nature and uses a descriptive-analytical approach to examine the data. To address the research questions and achieve its goals, data was gathered from primary sources, credible research materials, and field and museum visits. Since it is not feasible to analyze all the architectural or painting works from the Ilkhanid period, after initial studies and examinations, key works were selected for detailed analysis. Discussion This study examines the manifestations of traditionalism and Mongol tribal customs in the arts of the Ilkhanid period, and, through the analysis of archaeological and historical data, demonstrates the influence of these concepts in the architecture, painting, and coinage of the period. The findings indicate that despite cultural and political changes, Mongol traditions were not completely eradicated and are manifested, either directly or indirectly, in certain works from this period. In architecture, the influence of Mongolian yurts is evident in the structure of Ilkhanid tombs. A comparison of the multi-layered, aerodynamic yurts with the tower-shaped tombs in Shadabad, Tabriz, and Alnajq, Marand, illustrates the continuation of these traditions. Additionally, the location of cities and architectural complexes, such as Shamb Ghazan, Soltaniyeh, and the Maragheh observatory, was influenced by steppe traditions and shamanistic beliefs. The planting of steppe plants around these buildings also reflects the early Mongol culture. In painting, two illustrations from the Great Mongol Shahnameh were analyzed. The illustration titled “Ferdowsi Asking His Mother About His Ancestry” reflects the matriarchal society of the Mongols and refers to the political decisions of Abū Saʿīd Ilkhānī. The illustration “The Funeral of Esfandiar” depicts Mongol mourning rituals, with elements such as the cut manes of horses and grieving figures, which align with Mongol burial traditions. In Ilkhanid coinage, Uyghur and shamanistic motifs appear throughout the period. Phrases such as “Qaan” and “Qaan al-Azam,” as well as inscriptions in the Uyghur script, emphasize the political legitimacy of the Mongols. Moreover, the selection of verse 26 from Surah Al-Imran, with its theme of determinism, corresponds to Mongol shamanistic beliefs. The location of the coin minting, titled Ordu Bazar, highlights the importance of traditional trade markets outside of cities. This research shows that, alongside adopting elements of Iranian and Islamic culture, the Mongols maintained their tribal traditions in artistic forms. This fusion is evident not only in architecture and painting but also in political symbols like coinage, reflecting the complex interaction between traditionalism and the bureaucratic system during the Ilkhanid period. Conclusion Despite the abundance and diversity of sources, discussions surrounding the Mongol Empire in general and the Ilkhanate in particular have always been accompanied by ambiguities and disagreements. These complexities are particularly pronounced in the area of the origins of artistic patterns and styles from this period, which are undoubtedly influenced by the epistemological weaknesses of researchers in this field. The Mongol Empire and the Ilkhanid government are among those that rapidly advanced through the adoption of the legacies of civilized nations, reaching high levels of culture, industry, and more in newly conquered lands. While the influences of art from earlier periods in Iran, China, and other regions on Ilkhanid art have been frequently studied, the focus of this research was on the influence of early Mongol culture, or what could be termed Mongol traditionalism, on the arts of the Ilkhanid period. According to the findings of this research, the impact of Mongol tribal and traditional culture is evident in some of the archaeological and historical data from this period, though it mostly appears indirectly in the surviving works. Attention to the interior decorations of buildings from the Ilkhanid period, alongside influences from Seljuk styles, also reveals the impact of the intricate interior decorations of Mongol yurts. Comparing the general shape of Mongol conical, double-layered yurts with the structure of certain minarets and tombstones in the Ilkhanid period, as well as the structure and spatial organization of tombs in some Ilkhanid complexes, such as the crypt in Soltaniyeh, demonstrates the presence of tribal, traditional, and shamanistic influences. Decentralized tendencies and the teachings of the Mongol Yasa are reflected in the selection of locations for the construction of cities and architectural complexes, as well as in the significant role of Ordu Bazar in the economy of this period. Historical sources indicate that, by the orders of the Ilkhanid Khans, plants native to the steppe region were cultivated in places like Shamb Ghazan, Rabe Rashidi, and Soltaniyeh. The reflection of the early Mongol matriarchal concept in the illustration “Ferdowsi Asking His Mother About His Ancestry” and the depiction of Mongol mourning rituals in the painting “The Funeral of Esfandiar” from the Great Mongol Shahnameh serve as examples of traditionalism in Ilkhanid painting. Uyghur and shamanistic motifs in the visual elements of Ilkhanid coins are observable from the early years of their rule in Iran through to the later periods. The Mongols used Uyghur and Mongol themes to gain acceptance among the great Khans and Mongol nobility, while also adopting Islamic and Iranian motifs simultaneously to legitimize their rule in Iran and other conquered regions. Ilkhanid Period, Traditionalism, Mongol Tribal Traditions, Sociology of Art. دورۀ ایلخانی, عرف‌گرایی, سنن ایلی مغولی, جامعه‌شناسی هنر. 39 63 http://athar.richt.ir/browse.php?a_code=A-10-2190-1&slc_lang=fa&sid=2 2025/01/92025/03/2 1403/12/12 2025/05/12025/04/23 1404/2/3 Hamid Khanali Assistant Professor, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts and Tourism, Babolsar, Iran (Corresponding Author). حمید خانعلی khanali.hamid2@gmail.com 0009-0003-9855-852X Yes استادیار گروه باستان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ میراث‌فرهنگی، صنایع‌دستی و گردشگری، دانشگاه مازندران، بابلسر، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). Farzad Feyzi PhD in Archaeology, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Social Sciences, Mohaghegh Ardabili University, Ardabil, Iran. فرزاد فیضی farzadfeyzi92@gmail.com 0000-0002-8690-9543 No دکتری باستان‌شناسی، گروه باستان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه محقق اردبیلی، اردبیل، ایران.

fa مطالعۀ نمونه‌های کمتر شناخته‌شدۀ کاشی‌کاری در دورۀ ایلخانان و جانشینان آن‌ها بسیاری از ابنیۀ دوران ایلخانی و مظفری تا به امروز باقی‌مانده‌اند؛ اما آثار کاشی‌کاری برخی از آن‌ها دیگر بر بدنۀ بناها قرار ندارد، به موزه‌ها منتقل شده‌اند یا برای همیشه از بین رفته‌اند. درمیان ابنیۀ دارای تزئینات کاشی‌کاری این دوران، مواردی وجود دارد که در منابع نامی از آن‌ها برده‌نشده، یا بررسی‌های صورت‌گرفته از آن‌ها مختصر و مربوط به سال‎های دور است و وضعیت کاشی‌کاری آن‌ها تا به امروز بسیار تغییر کرده است. مقالۀ حاضر، با طرح این پرسش که، تزئینات کاشی‌کاری ناشناخته و کمتر شناخته‌شدۀ دوران ایلخانی و مظفری شامل چه مواردی می‌شود و جایگاه آن‌ها در سیر و تحول کاشی‌کاری ایلخانی و مظفری چیست؟ با رویکردی تاریخی‌-‌تطبیقی، به معرفی، مستندنگاری و بررسی تزئینات کاشی‌کاری آن‌ها پرداخته است. داده‌های این پژوهش، براساس واکاوی منابع مکتوب و بررسی‌های میدانی در ایران کنونی، ازمیان ۶۴ بنا شناسایی و گردآوری شده‌اند. تأکید بر آثاری است که هم‌چنان در ابنیه باقی‌مانده‌اند و فاقد تاریخ دقیق هستند. در این‌راستا، ابتدا بناها به‌طور اجمالی معرفی شده‌اند، سپس تزئینات مورد نظر توصیف و شرایط کنونی آن‌ها ذکر شده و درنهایت، با مقایسه با موارد مشابه، تاریخی برای آن‌ها پیشنهاد شده است. در این بررسی‌ها مشخص شد انواع کاشی، مانند معرق، معقلی، تراش، تا انواع کاشی‌هایی ازجمله طلاچسبان و زرین‌فام، در ابنیۀ این دوران وجود دارند که هم‌چنان ناشناخته باقی‌مانده‌اند. مقایسۀ آن‌ها نشان می‌دهد درحالی‌که تأثیرات بین‌منطقه‌ای وجود داشته است؛ به‌طورمثال، -میان آذربایجان تا ورامین- سنت‌های منطقه‌ای نیز در جریان بوده‌اند.   Abstract As a result of significant developments and innovations in tilework during the Ilkhanid and Muzaffarid periods, a large number of architectural structures from this era were adorned with various types of decorative tiles. Many examples of these artworks have survived to the present day; however, the tilework of some buildings has either been removed from the original structures, transferred to museums, or lost entirely. Through field investigations conducted by the authors, it was discovered that several buildings from this period still retain tile decorations, yet have received little to no scholarly attention. In some cases, the existing studies are outdated, and the tilework has undergone substantial changes since they were last documented. Revisiting these lesser-known examples is essential for both preserving them and gaining a deeper understanding of the evolution of Iranian tilework. This article explores the following key question: What are the lesser-known or undocumented examples of tile decoration from the Ilkhanid and Muzaffarid periods, and what roles do they play in the broader trajectory of tilework development during these eras? Employing a historical-comparative approach, this study identifies, documents, and analyzes these lesser-known tile decorations. The data presented are derived from a combination of literary sources and fieldwork conducted across present-day Iran, resulting in the identification of 64 relevant buildings. The focus is primarily on surviving tile decorations lacking precise dates. Each structure is briefly introduced, its decorative elements are described, their current conditions outlined, and comparative analysis used to suggest chronological placement. Findings indicate a variety of tile types such as Mosaic (Muʿaraqe), Maʿqilī (Square Kufic), and cutting (tarash), as well as styles like luster and Gilded still exist but remain understudied. Comparative analysis reveals both interregional influences (e.g., between Azerbaijan and Varamin) and the persistence of local artistic traditions. Keywords: Tilework, Mosaic (Muʿaraqe), Luster, Ilkhanids, Muzaffarids. Introduction A comprehensive understanding of the quality and extent of tilework during the Ilkhanid period and its successors is vital for a deeper appreciation of how this decorative tradition developed in subsequent eras. Tilework in this period experienced significant artistic and technical innovation, making it a pivotal stage in the history of Iranian architectural decoration. With this in mind, the authors examined nearly one hundred buildings attributed to the Ilkhanid and post-Ilkhanid periods. Among these, 64 structures were identified as still preserving original tile decorations, though in varying states of completeness and preservation. Through field studies and archival research, it became clear that the tilework in a number of these buildings remains either entirely undocumented or insufficiently explored in scholarly literature. In many cases, existing studies are outdated and provide only minimal references to tile decorations often limited to a brief mention of their presence, without any in-depth analysis, description, or photographic documentation. Additionally, the condition of these decorations has frequently changed over time due to looting, vandalism, environmental exposure, or restoration efforts, making previous studies less reliable. For example, while the Shamsiyya School and the Shahab al-Din Qasim Taraz School in Yazd are well-known monuments from this era, parts of their tilework remain ambiguous or largely unexplored. Furthermore, the tile decorations of sites like Imamzadeh Hood in Darjazin and Imamzadeh Sultan Seyed Eshaq in Saveh have received virtually no scholarly attention. Thus, reevaluating these lesser-known works is essential for both documentation and conservation purposes. This study aims to identify, record, and analyze previously unknown or neglected examples of Ilkhanid and Muzaffarid tilework that are currently at risk of deterioration. The research is guided by two central questions: What are the unknown or lesser-known examples of tile decoration from this period? And how do these works contribute to our understanding of the historical development of tilework? Twelve buildings were selected for detailed examination. Although previous scholars such as Sarre (1910), Wilber (1986), Godard (1992), Afshar (1995), Pope (2008), Blair (2008), and Pickett (1997) have studied Ilkhanid architecture and decoration, the buildings chosen for this study have received little focused attention. Each monument is briefly introduced, the tilework described, and comparative analysis used to position these examples within the broader evolution of Iranian tilework during this formative period. Discussion The findings from the examined structures reveal a diverse range of tilework from the Ilkhanid and Muzaffarid periods, each reflecting distinct historical and regional influences. The tilework of the tomb chest at Imāmzādi Habyb ibn-Musā in Kāshān, based on comparative analysis, dates to approximately 670 AH, with the relief tiles being characteristic of the late Ilkhanid period. Furthermore, the disordered state of the tilework of the tomb chest suggests that some pieces may have originally belonged to other parts of the building or a different structure entirely. The mihrab of Imāmzādi Shah Husayn in Varāmyn demonstrates a continuation of Seljuk traditions, blending local styles with newer tilework patterns seen in the Varāmyn Congregational Mosque. This indicates that the mihrab likely dates to a similar period, or slightly earlier, than the mosque itself. The external decoration of the octagonal structure likely predates the mihrab, dating to the late 7th or early 8th century AH. The tilework of the tomb chest of Imāmzādi Sultan Sayyid Isaac in Sava, through comparative study, appears to be from the late 7th century AH, possibly after 676 AH, with tiles likely originating from different parts of the building. Similarly, the inscription tilework of the tomb chest of Imāmzādi Muhammad Bastām can be placed in the late 7th century AH. The Isfastān Sarāb structure, dating from the late 7th century to around 704 AH, shows influence from Anatolian tilework traditions, as does Imamzadeh Shuʿayb Duzāl Ahar, likely dating between 700 and 715 AH. The remaining Mosaic(Muʿaraqe) tilework of Imāmzādi Hud Darjazyn in Hamidān, similar to that of Shaykh Hiydar Tower in Mishkyn Shahr, points to a late Ilkhanid or early Muzaffarid production. At the Shamsiyyih School of Yazd, two pieces of Gilded and Mosaic tilework on the northern side of the entrance iwan represent the only surviving examples from the Muzaffarid period. The unique white and lapis lazuli relief tiles at) Shahāb al-Din Qāsim  Tarāz School in Yazd, irregularly set, belong to the end of the Ilkhanid period transitioning into the Muzaffarid era. Many such decorations, including the luster tiles, have since been lost. The luster tiles at the Shaykh ʿAli Banymān  Byd-Akhavyd in Yazd likely originated from another building and are among the last productions of Kashan. Lastly, the tilework of East entrance of Dār al-Zyāfa Minaret in Isfahan and the Shaykh Ahmad Fahadān Mausoleum in Yazd, dating between 740–770 AH, mark the transition from the Ilkhanid successors to the Muzaffarid period. Conclusion Various types of tilework and tiles used during the Ilkhanid and Muzaffarid periods have roots in earlier traditions, such as cut-tilework and lusterware, while some techniques, like Mosaic tilework, were introduced for the first time during the Ilkhanid period. The main types of tilework and decoration methods used in these periods include cut-tile combined with brick, stucco and Terracotta; Mosaic tilework; Maʿqilī (Square Kufic); luster; Gilded tiles; Monochromatic tiles; underglaze and overglaze painting, produced both with Molding  and by Molded and Handmade(Pyshpur) techniques. According to the discussions in this article, the position of these lesser-known decorations in the development of Ilkhanid and post-Ilkhanid tilework can be outlined as follows: The structures of Isfastān Sarāb, Imāmzādi Sayyid Abu al-Qāsim  Ajabshyr, and Imamzadeh Shuʿayb Duzāl Ahar in Ahar represent a regional tradition in Azerbaijan, influenced by Anatolia, likely predating the Soltaniyeh Dome project and continuing until the end of the Ilkhanid period, as evidenced in the Gunbadi Ghaffāryih in Marāgha. The Imāmzādi Shah Husayn in Varāmyn reflects both influence from Gunbadi Sultāniyyih and continuation of older traditions that even shaped Soltaniyeh itself. The tile-and-brick Strapwork here follows the legacy of Seljuk architecture in Iran. Tilework at the Shamsiyyih and Shahāb al-Din Qāsim Tarāz schools, together with the Kamāliyyih Mausoleum (dated 720–740 AH), displays a strong regional tradition in Yazd during the third quarter of the 8th century AH. Imāmzādi Hud Darjazyn in Hamidān, along with the Kāj and Dashty Mosques in Isfahan, offers insight into the tilework of the late Ilkhanid period and the transition into their successors’ era. The Eastern entrance of Dār al-Zyāfa Minaret, alongside the North façade of North Shabistān of Great Mosque of Isfahan (768 AH), clarifies the development of tilework between the Bābā Qāsim  Mausoleum in Isfahan (741 AH) and approximately 770 AH. This also aids the study of the tilework at the Imāmy School in Isfahan, where several now-lost inscriptions were once reported. The tilework of the tomb chests at Imāmzādi Habyb ibn-Musā in Kāshān, Imāmzādi Sultan Sayyid Isaac in Sava, and Imāmzādi Muhammad Bastām presents a glimpse of their decoration in the late 7th century AH, although their structures have been entirely rebuilt. Additionally, twelve other buildings, such as the Jameh Mosque of Haftador and the Radkan Tower, contain tilework that remains largely unknown. Tilework, Mosaic (Muʿaraqe), Luster, Ilkhanids, Muzaffarids. کاشی‌کاری, معرق, زرین‌فام, ایلخانان, مظفریان. 65 91 http://athar.richt.ir/browse.php?a_code=A-10-3824-3&slc_lang=fa&sid=2 2025/01/92025/03/22025/01/13 1403/10/24 2025/05/12025/04/232025/04/23 1404/2/3 Pouria Shokri M.A. in Archaeology, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Conservation and Restoration, Isfahan University of Art, Isfahan, Iran (Corresponding Author). پوریا شکری pouria.shukri@gmail.com 0009-0008-5555-4226 Yes دانش‌آموختۀ کارشناسی‌ارشد باستان‌شناسی، گروه باستان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ حفاظت و مرمت، دانشگاه هنر اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). Ahmad Salehi Kakhki Professor, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Conservation and Restoration, Isfahan University of Art, Isfahan, Iran. احمد صالحی کاخکی Salehi.k.a@aui.ac.ir 0000-0002-1849-0701 No استاد گروه باستان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ حفاظت و مرمت، دانشگاه هنر اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران.

fa واکاوی تأثیرات نظام اقتصادی صفوی بر سازمان‌دهی فضایی شهر اصفهان با رویکرد ارتباط معماری و شهرسازی  دورۀ صفوی به‌عنوان یکی از ادوار مهم و برجسته در تاریخ ایران، تحولات بنیادینی را در ساختارهای فرهنگی، اجتماعی، اقتصادی و کالبدی شهرهای ایران رقم‌زد. در این‌میان، شهر اصفهان که در جایگاه پایتخت صفویان قرار داشت، تجلی‌گاه عینی این تحولات و بازتاب‌دهندۀ نظام سیاسی، اجتماعی و اقتصادی حاکم در آن عصر به‌شمار می‌آید. این شهر در دوران مذکور، تغییرات شگرفی را در سامان‌دهی فضایی خود تجربه نمود؛ با این‌وجود، بررسی نحوۀ تأثیرگذاری نظام اقتصادی صفوی بر ساختار فضایی اصفهان در مقایسه با دیگر ابعاد، کمتر موردتوجه محققان قرارگرفته است. پژوهش حاضر قصد دارد، به تحلیل و تبیین نحوۀ تأثیرگذاری نظام اقتصادی صفوی بر سازمان فضایی شهر اصفهان از رهگذر بررسی پیوندهای میان معماری و شهرسازی در این دورۀ تاریخی بپردازد. این تحقیق با رویکرد کیفی و روش تاریخی-تحلیلی و با اتکا به منابع کتابخانه‌ای و اسنادی انجام‌شده است. به‌منظور دستیابی به نتایج دقیق‌تر، میدان نقش‌جهان و بافت پیرامونی آن به‌عنوان مطالعۀ موردی برگزیده‌ شده است. یافته‌های پژوهش نشان می‌دهد که الگوهای اقتصادی حاکم در این دوره به‌صورت مستقیم بر شکل‌گیری فضاهای عمومی، ساختار بازارها و نحوۀ استقرار محلات شهری اثرگذار بوده است. گسترش شبکه‌های تجاری و توسعۀ زیرساخت‌های ارتباطی و خدماتی در سایۀ سیاست‌های اقتصادی صفوی، تأثیرات عمیقی بر سازمان فضایی شهر اصفهان به‌جا گذاشت. نتیجۀ نهایی تحقیق حاکی از آن است که میان نظام اقتصادی و سازمان فضایی شهر اصفهان در دورۀ صفویه، ارتباطی تنگاتنگ و متقابل برقرار بوده است. هم‌پیوندی میان معماری و شهرسازی در فرآیند فضاسازی‌های شهری کاملاً مشهود بوده و همگرایی ابعاد اقتصادی، اجتماعی و فرهنگی در شکل‌دهی به هویت بصری و فرم فضایی شهر اصفهان، نقشی محوری ایفا کرده است. Abstract The Safavid era stands as a pivotal period in Iranian history, ushering in fundamental transformations across the cultural, social, economic, and physical structures of Iranian cities. Among these, Isfahan, as the Safavid capital, served as a tangible manifestation of these changes, reflecting the prevailing political, social, and economic systems of its time. During this era, the city underwent significant spatial reorganization. However, the specific impact of the Safavid economic system on Isfahan’s spatial structure has received comparatively less attention from researchers.This study aims to analyze and elucidate how the Safavid economic system influenced the spatial organization of Isfahan, examining the intricate connections between architecture and urban planning during this historical period. Employing a qualitative approach with a historical-analytical method, and relying on library and archival sources, this research selected Naqsh-e Jahan Square and its surrounding fabric as a case study to achieve more precise results.The findings indicate that the dominant economic patterns of the Safavid period directly influenced the formation of public spaces, the structure of bazaars, and the arrangement of urban neighborhoods. The expansion of trade networks and the development of communication and service infrastructures, spurred by Safavid economic policies, left a profound impact on Isfahan’s spatial organization. The research ultimately concludes that a close and reciprocal relationship existed between the economic system and the spatial organization of Isfahan during the Safavid era. The strong interrelationship between architecture and urban planning was clearly evident in the city’s spatial development, with the convergence of economic, social, and cultural dimensions playing a central role in shaping Isfahan’s visual identity and spatial form. Keywords: Economic System, Spatial Organization, Architecture and Urban Planning Relationship, Isfahan, Safavid Dynasty. Introduction The development and transformation of urban spatial structures have always emerged from the intricate interplay of various elements, including political, social, cultural, and economic factors. Within the long and rich history of Iranian urbanism, the Safavid era stands as the most protracted period of Islamic rule in Iran. During this time, an economic system fundamentally anchored in international trade, artisanal industries, and agriculture played a decisive role in shaping the spatial organization of cities. Among these, Isfahan, as the Safavid capital, provides a striking exemplar of this reciprocal influence on both its architecture and urban planning (Shourmij, 2025:110).Isfahan’s spatial structure during this period was profoundly shaped by the economic policies of Shah Abbas I and the consequential shifts arising from the concentration of capital and resources within the city. This organization was meticulously designed to meet the economic, political, and religious demands of the era, leading to the formation of urban spaces within a coherent and purposeful network. This network comprised interconnected bazaars, caravanserais, public squares, distinct neighborhoods, and significant religious and governmental complexes. This spatial configuration was a direct manifestation of an authoritarian and centralized economic model, brought to fruition through the specific fiscal, commercial, and security policies characteristic of the Safavid period (Hanayi et al., 2021:22).While numerous scholarly works in the history of Iranian urban planning and Safavid architecture have explored various physical and spatial dimensions of Isfahan, there has been comparatively less analytical-historical investigation, within a robust theoretical framework, into how the Safavid economic system and the economic policies of Shah Abbas I specifically impacted the city’s spatial organization and its relationship with the broader architectural and urban planning structures.The significance of this research lies in its potential to illuminate the intricate reciprocal interaction between economics and space within a historical context like the Safavid era. This understanding can not only contribute to re-identifying the spatial identity of Iran’s historical cities but also offer a valuable paradigm for contemporary urban design processes, particularly in harnessing indigenous and historical capacities.Research Objectives and Hypothesis,The overarching objective of this research is to elucidate the manner in which the Safavid economic system influenced the spatial organization of the city of Isfahan and to analyze its intrinsic connections with the architectural and urban planning structures of the Safavid period.The primary research question guiding this study is: How did the spatial organization of Isfahan correlate with the economic policies of Shah Abbas I’s era.The research hypothesis posits that the Safavid economic system, fundamentally driven by international trade, artisanal industries, and agriculture, led to the formation of a coherent and purposeful spatial organization in Isfahan. This was achieved through the concentration of capital and resources within the city and the implementation of Shah Abbas I’s economic policies, all of which were intimately linked with the prevailing architectural and urban planning patterns of the Safavid period. Discussion and Analysis During the Safavid period, driven by population growth, the city of Isfahan expanded significantly from its traditional core, the Old Square (Meydan-e Kohneh), southward towards the Naqsh-e Jahan Square and the southern gardens. The primary axis of urban progression ran from north to south, crossing the Zayandeh Roud river and extending to the Hezar Jarib garden in the city’s southwest. This vital artery served as the city’s backbone and the main route for the spice trade and other goods. Along this axis, man-made and natural elements were strategically positioned, with residential areas and governmental buildings gradually emerging around it. The physical form of the city during this time relied on a central nucleus at the Old Square and a linear axis extending southward.With Isfahan’s establishment as the capital in (1596-97 CE), major transformations in the city’s spatial structure began. The city’s structure in this period featured two main cores and two primary axes: the initial core at the Old Square and the new core at Naqsh-e Jahan Square. Naqsh-e Jahan Square gradually superseded the Old Square as the city’s governmental and commercial heart. New architectural and functional elements progressively developed around this new central space. The novel spatial composition was designed as a rectangular square, measuring 505 meters by 160 meters, featuring uniform two-story facades. Diverse governmental, religious, cultural, and commercial functions were strategically located around the square. Among the most significant surrounding structures were the Shah Mosque, Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque, Ali Qapu Palace, Qaysariyyeh Portal, and numerous bazaars, including the Qaysariyyeh Bazaar.The development of Naqsh-e Jahan Square unfolded in three distinct phases:Phase One (1590 CE), The square was initially established for recreational purposes, hosting military displays and state ceremonies.Phase Two (from  1602 CE): The square evolved into a commercial hub, strategically designed to counterbalance the influence of the old bazaar.Phase Three (from 1611 CE),The square became dedicated primarily to state ceremonies, festivities, and royal rituals.From an economic perspective, the Timurid period witnessed a flourishing of trade, facilitated by the construction of qanats (underground aqueducts), the collection of direct taxes, and the reduction of road tolls and goods tariffs. Distinct features of this era included Timur’s invasions and plundering of adjacent territories, along with urban expansion towards the south, adjacent to fortresses and city gates.In contrast, during the Safavid era, economic policies focused on securing trade routes and establishing caravanserais, bolstering commerce, and revitalizing maritime routes following Magellan’s circumnavigation of the Cape of Good Hope in Southern Africa. Export commodities like silk, carpets, spices, pearls, and turquoise, alongside imported English textiles, tin, and almonds, played crucial roles in economic exchanges. This period also saw the relocation of the capital from Qazvin to Isfahan and the creation of new neighborhoods, such as New Julfa in the southwest and Chahar Bagh along the city’s main axis.The construction of Chahar Bagh Avenue as a vital connective artery between the Zayandeh Roud and Chahar Bagh-e Abbasi, the erection of bridges, and the relocation of Armenian and other diverse populations to stimulate the silk trade were all integral to Safavid economic and urban policies. Furthermore, this era was marked by a significant accumulation of production and value-added goods, the strengthening of guilds, the regulation of specific taxes like “khums”  and land taxes “tiyuldari ”, and a notable expansion of religious and educational endowments “waqf”. Conclusion Isfahan, as the capital of the Safavid Empire during its zenith (1501-1721 CE), stands as an outstanding example of the profound integration of economic systems, urban planning, and cohesive architecture in the history of both Iranian and Islamic urban development. In this pivotal era, the city’s economic structure was firmly anchored by three core components: advanced agriculture, sophisticated artisanal crafts, and dynamic international trade.The strategic utilization of the Zayandeh Roud river’s complex irrigation network and its secondary channels, known as “Madiha,” combined with a remarkably efficient and contemporary water management system, enabled large-scale agricultural production. This intricate water network was not just an economic engine but also an intrinsic part of the city’s spatial layout, playing a significant role in the organization of its various neighborhoods.In the commercial sphere, covered bazaars and their surrounding caravanserais, meticulously designed with orderly, axis-based layouts, functioned as vital centers for commodity exchange and social interaction. These structures were crucial in connecting Isfahan to major trade routes, facilitating the export of high-value goods like silk, carpets, and metalwork to markets in Europe and India. Among these, the Qaysariyyeh Bazaar, with its orthogonal and highly organized structure, particularly exemplified the city’s economic centrality and its deep connection to both the livelihoods and social fabric of its inhabitants.From an urban planning perspective, Safavid Isfahan was conceived following the model of the ideal Islamic city, with a strong emphasis on symmetry, spatial hierarchy, and visual unity. Naqsh-e Jahan Square, serving as the city’s vibrant heart, masterfully accommodated four key functions: political (Ali Qapu Palace), religious (Sheikh Lotfollah Mosque), economic (the Grand Bazaar), and social (the public plaza itself). Furthermore, the Chahar Bagh-Si-o-seh Pol axis, besides linking the royal gardens, played a critical role in water distribution through its network of underground channels, underscoring the multifunctional genius of Safavid urban design.Regarding water management, engineering marvels like the Si-o-seh Pol and Khaju Bridges, equipped with adjustable sluice gates, effectively acted as regulatory dams, aiding in the seasonal distribution of water across the city’s intricate network.Ultimately, Safavid architecture in Isfahan was a vivid manifestation of the ruling power, and alongside the city’s economic structure and spatial organization, it forged a seamless and integrated system. The profound and explicit connection between architecture and urban planning is distinctly evident across every spatial component of the city, cementing Isfahan’s legacy as a paramount example of holistic urban development. Economic System, Spatial Organization, Architecture and Urban Planning Relationship, Isfahan, Safavid Dynasty. نظام اقتصادی, سازمان‌دهی فضایی, ارتباط معماری و شهرسازی, اصفهان, صفویه. 93 115 http://athar.richt.ir/browse.php?a_code=A-10-1020-2&slc_lang=fa&sid=2 2025/01/92025/03/22025/01/132025/04/6 1404/1/17 2025/05/12025/04/232025/04/232025/05/13 1404/2/23 Fatemeh Ghajari Researcher, Ph.D. in Architecture, West Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran. فاطمه قجری Fatemeh.Ghajari@iau.ac.ir 0009-0009-2522-299X No پژوهشگر دکترای معماری، واحد تهران غرب، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران. Leila Zare Assistant Professor, Creative Economy Research Center, Islamic Azad University, West Tehran Branch, Tehran, Iran (Corresponding Author). لیلا زارع zare.leila@wtiau.ac.ir 0000-0002-3315-3535 Yes استادیار مرکز تحقیقات اقتصاد خلاق، واحد تهران غرب، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). Alireza Anisi Associate Professor, Faculty Member of the Cultural Heritage and Tourism Research Institute, Tehran, Iran. علیرضا انیسی anisi61@yahoo.co.uk 0000-0003-1532-3702 No دانشیار پژوهشکدۀ ابنیه و بافت‌های تاریخی، پژوهشگاه میراث‌فرهنگی و گردشگری، تهران، ایران.

fa معرفی سامون به‌عنوان بخشی از منظرِ شبانی در ایران نمونۀ موردی: سامون تَتِرِساق در بلدۀ مازندران  مراتع، نقشی بسیار حیاتی در حفظ تعادل اکوسیستم‌ها و تأمین خوراک دام ایفاء می‌کنند. به‌منظور حفاظت از دام، بهره‌برداری مناسب از مراتع و تأمین معیشت و زیست جوامع محلی، نظام‌های ساختاری و کارکردی متنوعی توسط انسان در طول زمان شکل‌گرفته و تبدیل به منظرِ شبانی شده ‌است. این منظر در مناطق روستایی ایران با چالش‌های متعددی مواجه است. تغییرات اقلیمی، مهاجرت و چرخش از نظام دامداری سنتی به صنعتی، آن‌ها را در معرض زوال و فراموشی قرار داده‌ است. هدف این پژوهش معرفی یکی از اجزای منظرِ شبانی در بلدۀ مازندران به‌نام «سامون» است. سامون، ظرفی است عرفی که برای تدقیق مرزهای شبانی، زیستی و معیشتی اهالی این‌روستاها از آن استفاده‌شده و دارای عرصه‌ها و پهنه‌های مختلف کالبدی و عناصر هویتی غیرکالبدی است. این پژوهش به‌دنبال پاسخ به دو پرسش دربارۀ  چیستی اندام‌ها، عناصر و ارزش‌های موجود در سامون بوده و در این مسیر از روش توصیفی-تحلیلی بهره برده‌ است. نتایج پژوهش نشان می‌دهد که سامون تَتِرِساق دارای سه عرصۀ زیستی، مرتعی و زراعی بوده و هر یک از عرصه‌ها دارای دو پهنۀ جداگانه هستند. اهالی سامون به‌وجودآورنده و توسعه‌دهندۀ ارزش‌های اقتصادی، فرهنگی، اجتماعی و کالبدی در طول قرن‌ها بوده‌اند و به‌نوعی از آن تاکنون پاسداری کرده‌اند. اما هم‌اکنون با توجه به رشد فزآیندۀ زوال منظر شبانی می‌بایست با پژوهش گسترده بر وضعیت عرصه و حریم سامون‌ها به مقولاتی چون: ایجاد و تقویت صنایع تبدیلی متوازن جاذب جمعیت و استفاده از ظرفیت‌های گردشگری منظرِ شبانی ازجمله اَگری‌توریسم و فارم‌توریسم نیز توجه نمود. Abstract The pastoral heritage in the rural areas of Iran, especially in the village, faces many challenges. Climatic changes, migration and turning from the traditional livestock system to an industrial one have caused its decline and oblivion. This research examines the Samoun system in the pastoral heritage of Baladeh, focusing on the Tattersaq sector. The main goal of this research is to document and analyze the architectural and cultural features of the Samoun system in the pastoral heritage of Baladeh. The main question of the research is how the Samoun system in the pastoral heritage of Baladeh and Tattersaq village helps to preserve and sustain this heritage? The main hypothesis is that the Samoun system, with its special features, plays an important role in preserving and transmitting local and cultural knowledge related to traditional farming and animal husbandry. This research uses the descriptive-analytical method. Data were collected through field observation, interviews with local people and review of written sources. Data analysis has been done using qualitative methods. The results of the research show that the Samoun system in the pastoral heritage of the town and Tattersaq village, with its special architectural and cultural features, has four types of hidden values and plays an important role in preserving and transmitting local and cultural knowledge related to traditional animal husbandry. This system can be used as a model to preserve and revive pastoral heritage in other rural areas of Iran. Keywords: Samoun, Agricultural Heritage, Pastoral Landscape, Cultural Heritage, Tattersaq. Introduction Pastoral livelihoods in rural Iran, particularly in Baladeh, Mazandaran, are deeply intertwined with socio-cultural and ecological systems. Herd size signifies wealth, while livestock inheritance stabilizes familial status (Roudi et al., 2024). Pastures, vital for biodiversity and subsistence, face threats from climate change, rural-urban migration, and industrialization (Pauler et al., 2025). This study investigates Samoun a traditional system in Baladeh’s Tattersaq sector that historically integrated grazing, agricultural, and ecological zones, safeguarding bio cultural heritage.   Samoun, a vernacular boundary framework, harmonized resource use, connecting habitats, farmlands, and pastures. However, declining pastoralism risks eroding its socio-ecological functions. This research asks: How does Samoun preserve pastoral heritage in Baladeh and Tattersaq? It hypothesizes that Samoun’s architectural and cultural features sustain traditional knowledge linked to farming and animal husbandry.   Using a descriptive-analytical approach, data were gathered via field observations, interviews, and document analysis. Findings reveal Samoun embodies four latent values: ecological resilience, maintaining soil and water health; cultural continuity, transmitting indigenous practices; social cohesion, reinforcing communal resource governance; and architectural ingenuity, reflecting adaptive landscape use. For instance, its terraced pastures prevent erosion, while shared grazing calendars optimize seasonal mobility (Zamanipour et al., 2010).   Local narratives highlight Samoun’s role in preserving herbal medicine knowledge and folk traditions (Hasty et al., 2022). Yet, urbanization disrupts intergenerational knowledge transfer, threatening these systems (Firoozrooz et al., 2014). By documenting Samoun’s spatial and functional layers, this study underscores its potential as a model for reviving pastoral heritage in Iran. Safeguarding such systems demands integrating traditional practices into modern conservation policies, ensuring the survival of Iran’s pastoral legacy. Samoun Tattersaq in Baladeh Noor  Samoun Tattersaq, located in the Baladeh Noor region (initial name: Darbandak) (Muhaddes Nouri, 2003), comprises three villages Razan, Tirestaq, and Korsi and serves as the easternmost pasture unit with an average elevation of 2,000 meters. The area links the Chalus and Haraz roads and hosts 54 villages across three districts (Heidari & Barani, 2009). Residents, primarily semi-nomadic herders speaking Tabari-Kojuri dialects, migrate seasonally to cities like Amol and Tehran (Ashrafi, 1998).   Residential Zone: The core includes villages with human and livestock sub-zones. Human settlements feature stepped houses, mosques, Imamzadehs (e.g., Aqa Sheikh Niku, Imamzadeh Ebrahim), and cemeteries (Ashrafi, 1998). Livestock areas include Kolum (livestock shelters), Kahn-Anbar (hay storage), and Vash-Kapa (fodder storage).  Kolum structures, built from stone and wood, adapt seasonally: in Razan, they shelter cattle, while sheep graze remotely (Figure 15) (Nadimi et al., 2017).   Rangeland Zone: Divided into grazing and structural sub-zones. Seasonal pastures include Lar (summer highlands), Nesem (spring/autumn mid-elevations), and Kherto (winter lowlands) Infrastructure includes Gesn Sareh (seasonal herder camps with Kimeh shelters), Telar (winter livestock barns), and water systems (Noveh wooden troughs). Boundaries are marked by stone cairns (Roodi, 2019 interview).   Agricultural Zone: Combines croplands and structural elements. Crops (wheat, barley) and orchards (apples, walnuts) surround villages. Structures include Kalak (granaries), Karoch (field boundaries), Hasel (water reservoirs), and Kimeh (temporary shelters). Water channels (Kileh) distribute irrigation, maintained communally (Rahimian, 2023).  The integration of these zones reflects adaptive land-use practices, balancing pastoralism, agriculture, and seasonal mobility (Smith & Brown, 2019). Field studies highlight the role of cultural and environmental factors in shaping the region’s spatial organization (Saidi, 2024).  Discussion  The Samoun Tattersaq, an integral part of the Bladeh region’s pastoral heritage, comprises three functional areas and six zones, holding inherent values crucial for regional sustainability (Anabestani, Saeedi, & Darvish, 2012). These values encompass environmental, socio-cultural, architectural, and economic aspects. Environmentally, the spatial positioning of Samoun Tattersaq reflects indigenous knowledge, with water resources, fertile lands, and suitable climate playing key roles. Shepherds maintained a balance between living spaces, livestock, and pastures, forming three interconnected areas: a residential core, an agricultural layer, and a grazing periphery. This daily movement between residence and livelihood has ensured the sustainability of Samoun Tattersaq, preserving its geographical and environmental values. Socio-cultural values, the foundation of Samoun Tattersaq, include inherited traditions, local customs, and indigenous knowledge related to agriculture, animal husbandry, handicrafts, and traditional arts (interview with Javad Roudi, 2022). The social system, characterized by cooperation and mutual respect, fosters a secure environment for the local community. Architecturally, the region’s structures reflect a deep understanding of climate and functional needs. The architecture adapts to the climate, with each area defining its architectural elements based on climate, environment, and economy. Local materials and the construction expertise of residents contribute to preserving architectural values. Economically, agriculture and animal husbandry sustain the rural economy (Jamshidi, 2024). The community relies on these activities, with land, livestock, and water resources enhancing economic stability (Hosseini, Forouzani, & Abdshahi, 2023). The system of ownership, cultivation, and production, rooted in the experiential knowledge of shepherds, dictates economic values. Additionally, values related to agricultural and rural tourism have emerged (Bălan & Burghelea, 2015). Conclusion This paper, examining Samoun Tattersaq, concludes that the Samoun serves as a customary framework for defining pastoral, residential, and livelihood boundaries, with mountain ridges as the determining criterion. Each mountain ridge belongs to a village, separating its pasture from neighboring villages. The Samoun in the Baladeh region of Mazandaran comprises three main areas: residential, grazing, and agricultural, each with specific zones. The residential area includes zones for human and animal habitation, the grazing area includes pasture and physical structure zones, and the agricultural area includes cultivation and physical structure zones. Each of these areas and zones contains tangible, intangible, and non-physical elements that constitute the inherent values of these landscapes and Samouns. These values have played a significant role in the region’s sustainability throughout history, encompassing environmental, social, architectural, and economic dimensions. Examining these values helps to better understand the Samoun Tattersaq and its related elements. Unfortunately, the physical and functional identity and authenticity of many Samouns are changing due to migration, career changes, and inappropriate construction. With the decline in the number of active shepherds and economic difficulties, preserving these values without the presence of local communities will be challenging. To protect this valuable heritage, it is suggested that these areas be studied as a Samoun from the perspective of pastoral life in Baladeh, Mazandaran, and that efforts be made to register them in the list of national monuments. The people of Samoun can contribute to economic development by continuing livestock production and establishing cooperatives and processing industries. Furthermore, utilizing tourism opportunities such as agritourism and farm tourism can help create employment and sustain the pastoral landscape in the region, serving as a suitable model to be considered. Samoun, Agricultural Heritage, Pastoral Landscape, Cultural Heritage, Tattersaq. سامون, میراث کشاورزی, منظر شبانی, میراث‌فرهنگی, تَتِرِستاق. 117 148 http://athar.richt.ir/browse.php?a_code=A-10-3041-8&slc_lang=fa&sid=2 2025/01/92025/03/22025/01/132025/04/62024/11/9 1403/8/19 2025/05/12025/04/232025/04/232025/05/132025/04/9 1404/1/20 Fatemeh Roudi Master’s student in the field of Conservation and Restoration of Architectural Heritage, Department of Restoration, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran. فاطمه رودی FatemehRoodi@arch.iust.ac.ir 0009-0006-6430-4830 No دانشجوی کارشناسی‌ارشد رشتۀ حفاظت و مرمت میراث معماری، گروه مرمت، دانشکدۀ معماری شهرسازی، دانشگاه علم و صنعت ایران، تهران، ایران. Hosein Raie Assistant Professor, Department of Restoration, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran (Corresponding Author). حسین راعی hoseinraie@iust.ac.ir 0000-0002-1914-793X Yes استادیار گروه مرمت، دانشکدۀ معماری شهرسازی، دانشگاه علم و صنعت ایران، تهران، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). Asghar Mohammadmoradi Professor, Department of Restoration, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran. اصغر محمدمرادی m_moradi@iust.ac.ir 0000-0002-6639-9339 No استاد گروه مرمت، دانشکدۀ معماری شهرسازی، دانشگاه علم و صنعت ایران، تهران، ایران.

fa حفاظت و مرمت جامعه‌محور (موردپژوهی قرآن نِگِل)  بررسی اسناد بین‌المللی حفاظت و مرمت نشان‌دهندۀ یک تغییر تدریجی در رویکردهای حفاظت و مرمت است. تاکنون رویکردهای متفاوتی در حفاظت و مرمت از میراث فرهنگی حاکم بوده است و این رویکردها، روش و علوم مورداستفاده در حفاظت و مرمت را تحت‌تأثیر قرار داده‌اند. رویکرد بالا به پایین تا قبل از منشور بورا حاکم بود و بسیاری از مرمت‌ها بر پایۀ این رویکرد شکل گرفته است. در این رویکرد، روش‌های پوزیتیویستی حاکم هستند که بر جسم و مادۀ تشکیل‌دهندۀ شئ تاریخی فرهنگی تأکید دارند. نتیجۀ یک سیستم پوزیتیویستی بسیاری از معانی غلیظ مرتبط با میراث، ازجمله احساسات مردم و وابستگی‌های عاطفی مرتبط با اثر را از دست خواهد داد. پس از «منشور بورا» با گسترش نسبی‌گرایی فرهنگی رویکرد تغییر کرده و رویکرد پایین به بالا، یعنی مشارکت فعال مردم در حفاظت و مرمت و حفاظت جامعه‌محور حاکم می‌شود. نکتۀ مهم این‌که در عمل کمتر به این موارد پرداخته شده است. عوامل زیادی در فرآیند حفاظت و مرمت دخالت دارند که جامعۀ اثر یک عامل مهم در فرآیند حفاظت و مرمت است. مردم به‌عنوان بخش مهمی از ذی‌نفعان مرتبط با آثار تاریخی فرهنگی، بایستی در فرآیند حفاظت و مرمت درنظر گرفته شوند. هدف از این تحقیق پرداختن به فرآیند حفاظت و مرمت و تأثیرات عوامل اجتماعی دخیل در آن است. یکی از این موارد حفاظت و مرمت قرآن نِگِل در شهرستان سنندج است. نوع خط و ضخامت کاغذ آن موجب‌شده که مردم باور داشته باشند که از نسخه‌های آغازین قرآن است. در این جستار فرآیند حفاظت و مرمت قرآن نِگِل با روش کیفی (موردپژوهی) مورد بررسی و تحلیل قرار گرفت. نتایج نشان می‌دهد که فرآیند حفاظت و مرمت قرآن نِگِل از آنجایی‌که یک حفاظت و مرمت «جامعه محور» متکی‌بر علوم نرم و علوم سخت و با یک رویکرد پایین به بالا انجام شده است؛ یک حفاظت و مرمت کاملاً متفاوت و خاص بوده است و از همۀ این جهات دارای اهمیت است. همچنین مردمی که اثر در آن واقع شده است، سهم مهمی در فرآیند حفاظت و مرمت دارند و بایستی به آن توجه ویژه شود. Abstract The review of international conservation and restoration documents shows a gradual change in conservation and restoration approaches. Until now, there have been different approaches in the conservation and restoration of cultural heritage and these approaches have influenced the methods and sciences used in conservation and restoration. The top-down approach prevailed before the Burra charter and many restorations have been based on this approach. In this approach, positivist methods are dominant, which emphasize the body and matter that make up the cultural historical object. The result of a positivist system will miss many of the rich meanings associated with heritage, including people’s feelings and emotional attachments associated with the work. After the Burra Charter, with the spread of cultural relativism, the approach has changed and the bottom-up approach, i.e. the active participation of the people in conservation, restoration, and “community-oriented” conservation, has become the rule. The important point is that in practice, these cases have been addressed less. Many factors are involved in the conservation and restoration process, and the community where the work is located is an important factor in the conservation and restoration process. People, as an important part of the stakeholders related to historical cultural monuments, should be considered in the process of conservation and restoration. The purpose of this research is to deal with the conservation and restoration process and the effects of social factors involved in it. One of these cases is the conservation and restoration of the Negel Quran in Sanandaj city. The type of writing and the thickness of its paper have led people to believe that it is one of the early versions of the Qur’an. In this research, the process of conservation and restoration of Negel Quran was investigated and analyzed with a qualitative method (case study). The results show that the process of conservation and restoration of the Negel Quran, since it is a “community-oriented” conservation based on soft and hard sciences and with a bottom-up approach; a conservation and restoration has been completely different and special and is important in all these aspects. Keywords: Negel Qurans - People’s Participation in Conservation & Restoration- the Approach of International Documents. Introduction In the past few decades, there has been a growing call to change the ontological perspective of heritage conservation so that it can accommodate a wider range of socio-cultural and experiential values (Wells, 2015). Utilizing the participation of community members in advancing affairs and solving community problems is one of the concepts whose importance has become more and more clear in the contemporary era. Community-centered conservation is a concept that is fully applicable in urban landscape restoration and fabric restoration. However, in the process of preserving and restoring historical and cultural objects, the role of society as the beneficiaries of preservation and restoration has received less attention. In fact, public participation in conservation and restoration is a highly debatable issue, and people should be considered as the main stakeholders in the conservation and restoration process. The restoration of the Negel Quran, which was completed in December 2017 (B. Shokri, personal interview, November 29, 1403; A. Karimi, personal interview, November 7, 1403; H. Malekian, personal interview, March 10, 1401), is one of the restorations that should not be ignored in the area of public participation and intervention in conservation and restoration. The Negel Quran is one of the important manuscript Qurans written in Iranian Kufic script. The type of script and the thickness of its paper have led people to believe that it is one of the earliest copies of the Quran (Zarei, 2014). But what is important from the authors’ point of view is the approach and process of conservation and restoration of the Negel Quran. An interesting incident in the conservation and restoration of this exquisite work was that the people of Negel village prevented the Quran from being transported to Tehran for necessary conservation and analysis, until finally the conservation team from Tehran left for Negel village and this valuable work was restored in the village and under the care of the people (B. Shokri, personal interview, November 29, 1403; H. Malekian, personal interview, March 10, 1401). An approach that has been widely discussed in international conservation and restoration documents and conservation and restoration approaches in the contemporary era (Vinas, 2012), but is rarely seen in practice (real examples of conservation and restoration). This article attempts to analyze and examine the process of preserving and restoring the Negl Quran, and also to address the importance and position of the role of people in preserving and restoring historical and cultural objects. For this purpose, the important issue of involving people in preserving and restoring and the importance of local communities and people’s participation in preserving and restoring will be analyzed and evaluated from the perspective of international documents and approaches to preserving and restoring. Discussion  In fact, addressing the process of conservation and restoration the Negel Quran carries many implications; including the issue of using hard and soft sciences in conservation and restoration and the difference they make in the conservation and restoration process, or paying attention to the dominant approaches in different time periods conservation and restoration.  The dominant approach in the conservation and restoration of the Negel Quran has been a “bottom-up” approach. This is a theme emphasized in paragraph 4 of the Florence Declaration. One of the most important new concepts in this document is “community-based conservation” and the devolution of power to local residents. The document believes in a bottom-up approach to the effective conservation and management of heritage; that is, starting with the people, and proposes a practical and transparent approach to designing the right relationship between conservators and communities; that is, recognizing an active role for communities in formal management planning structures by giving them a voice and input in conservation decision-making processes. The role of heritage experts as those who provide technical advice and when the presence and role of the community in dealing with fragmented heritage should be recognized as a facilitator (Florence Declaration, 2014). An issue that is clearly seen in the conservation and restoration of the Negel Quran. The people of the region and the village believed that the Quran should not be moved from the village mosque and transferred to another location (Zarei, 2014). This issue had made the conservation and restoration of this work difficult for the authorities and the government. The important point in the restoration of this work is that it is one of the few historical and cultural objects that people have direct intervention in its conservation and restoration. So, the participation of the people is an active participation and the conservation/restoration of this work is considered a community-based conservation/restoration. The requirement of this type of approach and type of conservation and restoration is that the scope of the sciences used in this conservation and restoration also expands and goes beyond the focus on hard sciences and includes soft sciences. Conclusion  Public participation in conservation and restoration is a colorful perspective in international documents. The results of this research show that people and their role in conservation and restoration have been considered since the earliest charters, but their approaches have been different, and concepts such as public access, awareness and education of the public about the importance of protecting cultural heritage, encouraging the protection of historical monuments, and the participation of indigenous people in conservation have been considered in most international documents, and the common theme of most of these documents is that they have all been examples of a top-down approach to conservation and restoration. Also, with the passage of time, new approaches have been introduced in this field. At the beginning of the twenty-first century, new approaches can be seen in the field of public and community participation in the protection of cultural heritage. The most important dominant approach in this period is to pay attention to conservation and sustainable development through public participation in the conservation process. In general, the dominant approach in international documents is participatory approaches that, along with the spread of cultural relativism - which began with the Bura Charter - are based on a bottom-up approach to conservation and restoration. Recently, there has been a lot of emphasis on “community-based conservation” and “intercultural dialogue.” It is important to note that although public participation in conservation and restoration has been emphasized and there are even examples of it, this participation and intervention has not been in the field of restoration of historical and cultural objects. For this reason, the restoration of the Negel Quran is a completely special and unique issue. Since people have had direct and indirect intervention in the conservation and restoration process of this work, it shows the trustworthiness of the work in society, which in itself will be a reason for the permanent conservation of the work in society. Since the conservation and restoration process of the Negel Quran was a “community-based” conservation and restoration based on soft and hard sciences and carried out with a bottom-up approach, it has been a completely different and special conservation and restoration, and it is important in all these respects. Negel Qurans - People’s Participation in Conservation & Restoration- the Approach of International Documents. قرآن نِگِل, مشارکت مردم در حفاظت و مرمت, رویکرد اسناد بین‌المللی. 149 170 http://athar.richt.ir/browse.php?a_code=A-10-3686-1&slc_lang=fa&sid=2 2025/01/92025/03/22025/01/132025/04/62024/11/92024/02/8 1402/11/19 2025/05/12025/04/232025/04/232025/05/132025/04/92024/06/2 1403/3/13 Javad Abbasi PhD in restoration of historical cultural objects, Department of Restoration of Historical Cultural Objects, Faculty of Conservation and Restoration, University of Arts, Tehran, Iran (Corresponding Author). جواد عباسی javad_abbasi1991@yahoo.com 0009-0004-8371-9148 Yes دکتری مرمت اشیای فرهنگی تاریخی، گروه مرمت اشیای فرهنگی تاریخی، دانشکدۀ حفاظت و مرمت، دانشگاه هنر، تهران، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول). Kouros Samanian Associate Professor, Department of Restoration of Historical Cultural Objects, Faculty of Conservation and Restoration, University of Arts, Tehran, Iran. کورس سامانیان samanian_k@yahoo.com 0000-0002-9190-4894 No دانشیار گروه مرمت اشیای فرهنگی تاریخی، دانشکدۀ حفاظت و مرمت، دانشگاه هنر، تهران، ایران.