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fa بررسی و مطالعۀ تطبیقی پیکرک‌های مادینۀ زنان عصر مفرغ در شرق ایران (مطالعۀ موردی: شهر سوخته و تپه حصار) در شرق باستان، پیکرک‌­های انسانی و حیوانی مدل­‌سازی­‌شده از دورۀ مفرغ در حجم نسبتاً زیادی کشف شده است. پیکرک­‌های گوناگون گلی، سنگی، استخوانی و ... از هر دوره و بافتی که به­‌دست­‌آمده باشند، همواره نگاه دقیق و موشکافانه‌­ای را برای مطالعه می‌­طلبند. این داده‌­های مادی، می‌­توانند گوشه­‌هایی پنهان از آیین، افکار، آداب‌ورسوم و دغدغه‌­های زیستی و اجتماعی مردمانشان را آشکار نمایند. پیکرک‌­ها در بیشتر دوره‌­های تاریخی تمدن بشری دیده شده­‌اند. در این جســتار کوشـیده‌­ایم تا پیکرک­‌های محوطه­‌های شمال‌شرق و جنوب‌شرق ایران را مورد بررسی، تحلیل و تطبیق قرار دهیم. روش پژوهش به‌­صورت توصیفی-تحلیلی و ابزار جمع‌­آوری داده‌­ها، کتابخانه‌­ای است. در راستای شناخت هر چه بیشتر پیکرک‌­های حوزه‌­های موردبررسی، هدف اصلی پژوهش، کارکرد پیکرک‌­ها و درنهایت ارتباط این داده­‌ها با جامعه و اجتماع ساکنان شرق ایران است. نتایج حاصل‌­شده نشان می‌­دهد، پیکرک‌­های انسانی جنوب‌شرق و شمال‌­شرق ایران، علیرغم تفاوت در جغرافیای محل ساختشان یعنی شهرسوخته و تپه‌­حصار، از لحاظ سبک ساخت، دقیقاً شبیه به هم هستند؛ به­‌گونه‌­ای‌­که پیکرک‌­های این دو حوزه، مسبک و به ­دور از واقع‌­گرایی و درنهایت ســادگی ساخته شده‌­اند و تنها تفاوت­شان در میـزان پخت آن­‌ها است که در شمال­‌شرق ایران پیکرک‌­ها پخت بهتری نسبت به جنوب‌شرق داشته‌­اند. ازلحاظ عملکردی این پیکرک‌­ها در هر دو حوزۀ فرهنگی ایران دقیقاً شبیه به‌هم بوده و در ارتباط با زایش و باروری ایجاد شده­ و تشابهاتی را با پیکرک‌­های محوطه‌­های عصر مفرغ آسیای میانه ازجمله (آلتین­‌تپه، نمازگاه، مهرگره) و محوطه تورنگ‌­تپه دارند. Abstract In the Ancient East, human and animal figurines of the Bronze Age were discovered abundantly. Different figurines made of clay, stone, bone, etc., of any age require careful and meticulous research. These materials data can reveal a hidden aspect of the rituals, thoughts, customs, and social and biological concerns of the people creating them. Figurines can be found in most historical eras of human civilization. In this study, we seek to analyze and compare the figurines found in the Northeast and Southeast of Iran. The study adopted a descriptive-analytic approach, and library research was used to collect data. In order to gain a better understanding of the figurines in the region, the main objective of the current study is to evaluate the figurine functionality and, ultimately, relate the results to the community and the people of those living in eastern Iran. The results indicated that human figurines of northeastern and southeastern Iran were identical regarding their sculpturing style, despite the geographical difference between their origins, i.e., Shahr-e Sukhteh and Tepe Hesar. The figurines are made stylized, simply, and non-realistically and their only difference is their baking time. In the Northeast of Iran, the figurines were baked better than those of southeastern Iran. Regarding their functionality, the figurines are identical in both cultural domains, and they were made relating to birth and fertility, similar to those found in Central Asia dating back to the Bronze Age, such as Altyndepe. Keywords: Figurine, Female, Bronze Age, Shahr-e Sukhteh, Tepe Hesar. Introduction In the Bronze Age, cultural, technological, social and economic processes had gained speed and expansion compared to the Chalcolithic period. Bronze Age cultures in Iran spanned from about the early third millennium BC to the middle of the second millennium BC, i.e. about 1500 years, which is not well known in the written archaeological works of Iran. Of course, this does not mean that the cultural remains of this period have not yet been discovered, but on the contrary, the volume of information related to this period is sufficient to determine its various dimensions within the framework of the Bronze Age. Cultural artifacts obtained from eastern Iran, of any type, color and type, always require a careful and meticulous look. Among the countless objects discovered in these two cultural areas, a wide range of works called figurines with special forms and construction techniques are known.  A distinctive feature of figurines is that they have human or animal body parts such as the head and hands, and sometimes parts such as eyes, ears, and also human sexual organs such as the penis. A human figurine is sometimes called anthropomorphic, meaning human-like, which is interpreted in the Oxford dictionary as "a symbol of God in the form of a human." In addition to material and cultural data, figurines can reveal hidden corners of the religion, thoughts, customs, and biological and social concerns of their people. What attracts the attention of archaeologists and researchers the most is the function and true meaning of these figurines. The functions presented regarding these cultural data include being toys and their educational function, respect for ancestors and the dead of early societies, worship of ancestors and spirits of the past, birth, childbirth, and burial. Most researchers have emphasized the religious aspect of the figurines to date or due to the prominent features of certain organs of a number of figurines, have considered them to be symbols of fertility and fertility Goddesses, who are also considered representations of the gods worshipped at that time.  The distribution and abundance of these cultural data indicate the importance of these artifacts for Bronze Age societies, and recognizing the form of these works is important in identifying the culture of the societies of this period.  The aim of this research, in addition to the visual analysis of these data in the areas under study, is also to analyze their role and function; the research community includes female figurines in the two sites of Tepe Hesar and Shahr Sokhteh belonging to the Bronze Age period. The samples examined in this research include various types of pottery, bronze, stone, etc., which indicate the importance of these artifacts in Bronze Age societies. Discussion In order to answer the main research question, “What are the similarities and differences in the Bronze Age figurines in southern and northeastern Iran in terms of form? And what functions did the female human figurines of these two cultural areas include?” Archaeological and historical sources and references were analyzed and evaluated. The figurines of both the Burnt City and Tepe-Hesar sites include female specimens and are made of various bronze, stone, and clay materials, which are introduced and compared in the following. 1- Female figurines of Burnt City Female human figurines in Burnt City are more diverse than male and animal figurines, and different classifications have been presented. A large number of female figurines have been found from the second period of Burnt City. These figurines can be placed in the following three categories: a. Sitting, simplified with a protruding belly, b. Half-body with hands on the belly, c. Standing, protruding belly, long legs and prominent breasts. 2- Female figurines of Tepe-Hesar Given their abstraction, they have a special reference to female protrusions, which emphasizes the concept and birth of these mother goddesses. One of the most prominent examples is a figurine made of simple gypsum marble whose body anatomy is such that the body is made of two incomplete cones and in the middle of its chest there is a prominent button-like part and is divided into two parts by a slit in the middle and is an embodiment of female breasts (same) and the anatomy of the body is very simple and without details. Comparison of the anatomy of the figurines  By comparing the figurines found in Tepe-Hesar and Shahr Sokhteh in terms of structure, form and appearance, the similarities and significant influences that these figurines had on each other can be seen. One of these similarities is that they are all women, have feminine features and very simple makeup with few decorations (necklaces and earrings). Function of the figurines Almost all female figurines have nudity in common, and the emphasis is on the large breasts and abdomen, and most importantly, on the woman being pregnant and giving birth, and not just showing her being a woman. As can be easily understood from the comparison of the female statues found, the parts related to fertility, namely the breasts, abdomen and pelvis, are the center of attention, and the head and hands are secondary and summarized. In a way, which is also true in most figurines of both studied sites, a theory is also true; therefore, in Shahr Sokhteh and Tepe Hisar, figurines with prominent breasts and no heads were made, which displayed an image of childbirth and pregnancy.     Conclusion One of the most interesting and strange findings of archaeologists in Iran and many parts of the world is human figurines, the production of which began in previous millennia and continued until historical periods. Since the number of human figurines is greater than that of animal figurines, the attention of many researchers has been drawn to this issue and detailed studies have been conducted on them; but researchers have not yet reached a common opinion in this field. In the Bronze Age, the production of female figurines reaches its peak. This research has examined Bronze Age figurines in the cultural areas of Shahr Sokhteh and Tepe Hisar. The results of this research show that the gender of most of these figurines is female and their body anatomy is mostly made in an abstract and simple way, and some are on the border between realism and abstraction. The figures lack details and the only difference is in their firing. In Shahr Sokhteh, the firing of the figurines was very crude and primitive, so that they are mostly rough and easily broken and destroyed, while in Tepe Hesar, the firing of the figurines is relatively more appropriate. Regarding the function of these works, it can be noted that because these works emphasize female organs (breasts, protruding abdomen and pelvis), they have aimed to symbolize childbirth and fertility. In a way, by creating female figurines in various positions such as fertility, childbirth, etc., they have established a connection between the fertility of these figurines and the yield and fertility of the land. A feature that is also observed to a large extent in the figurines of the Central Asian bronze sites.  Finally, it can be said that in the Bronze Age, social communication and interactions between the northeast and southeast expanded, and accordingly, a significant interaction is seen in the culture and art of the people of these regions, and this is reflected in cultural data, especially figurines. The most important reasons for the stylistic similarity of female figurines from southeastern Iran with its northeast, southern Turkmenistan, and Pakistan are related to matters such as trade, cultural diffusion, migration, and the importance of women, fertility, and childbirth in the culture and worldview of the people of these regions.   Figurine, Female, Bronze Age, Shahr-e Sukhteh, Tepe Hesar. پیکرک, مادینه, عصر مفرغ, شهرسوخته, تپه‌حصار. 5 28 http://athar.richt.ir/browse.php?a_code=A-10-2736-7&slc_lang=fa&sid=2 2022/12/3 1401/9/12 2023/04/11 1402/1/22 Sara Sadeghi Ph.D. in Archaeology, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran (Corresponding Author). سارا صادقی sara_sadeghi809@yahoo.com 0000-0002-0125-8797 Yes دکتری باستان‌شناسی، گروه باستان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه محقق اردبیلی، اردبیل، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول) Nahid Rashidi Mofrad Senior expert in anthropology, General Department of Cultural Heritage, Tourism, Handicrafts, Lorestan Province, Khorram Abad, Iran ناهید رشیدی‌مفرد nahiddrashidi@gmail.com No کارشناس ارشد مردم‌شناسی اداره کل میراث‌فرهنگی، گردشگری، صنایع‌دستی استان لرستان، خرم‌آباد، ایران Behrooz Afkhami Professor, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran بهروز افخمی bafkhami@uma.ac.ir 0000-0003-0586-6949 No استاد گروه باستان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه محقق اردبیلی، اردبیل، ایران Farzad Feyzi Ph.D. in Archaeology, Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Mohaghegh Ardabili, Ardabil, Iran فرزاد فیضی farzadfezi92@gmail.com 0000-0002-8690-9543 No دکتری باستان‌شناسی، گروه باستان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم اجتماعی، دانشگاه محقق اردبیلی، اردبیل، ایران

fa تحلیل آسیب‌شناسی ساختاری و سیمایی سنگ‌نوشتۀ اورارتویی سقین‌دل، ورزقان، آذربایجان‌شرقی، ایران سنگ‌نوشتۀ اورارتویی، در روستای سقین‌دل از بخش مرکزی شهرستان ورزقان در استان آذربایجان شرقی متعلق به دورۀ فرمانروایی «ساردوری دوم» پادشاه اورارتویی بر سنگی در کوه زاغی، نقر شده است. این سنگ‌نوشته یکی از آثار منحصربه‌فرد باقی‌مانده از دوران گسترش پادشاهی اورارتویی در شرق دریاچۀ ارومیه است که بیانگر تاریخ فرمان‌روایی آنان در منطقه است و به‌دلیل عدم رسیدگی قسمت اعظم آن آسیب‌دیده و دچار تخریب گشته است. براساس بررسی‌های انجام‌شده بر روی سطوح سنگ‌نوشته، پوششی از انواع گل‌سنگ‌ها تقریباً تمام صخره کوه‌های این منطقه را تحت‌تأثیر قرارداد است که سنگ‌بستر سنگ‌نوشته نیز از این آسیب به دور نمانده است. به‌علاوه در بدنه و پای سنگ‌نوشته آسیبی از وندالیسم و حفاری‌های غیرمجاز نیز دیده می‌شود که سلامت اثر را با مخاطره روبه‌رو نموده است. با توجه به این‌که تاکنون مطالعات علمی و آزمایشگاهی درخصوص بررسی شیوۀ ساخت اثر، آسیب‌شناسی سنگ‌نوشته اورارتویی سقین‌دل و شناسایی لایه‌ها و سازوکار تخریب احتمالی بر روی آن‌ها و هم‌چنین راه‌حل حفاظتی برای آن ارائه نگردیده است؛ بنابراین برای رسیدن به این هدف مطالعات آزمایشگاهی، در مورد ساختار و ویژگی‌های سنگ و همچنین انواع آسیب‌های وارده به بدنه به شیوه‌های مختلف انجام گرفت. تا به سؤالات مهم تحقیق شامل: 1. مهم‌ترین آسیب‌های موجود در بدنۀ سنگ‌نوشتۀ اورارتویی سقین‌دل چیست؟ 2. چگونه پدیده‌های موجود ساختاری و اقلیمی و ذاتی و تجمعات زیستی موجب آسیب گشته‌اند؟ که در این‌راستا مطالعات میدانی نشان‌دهندۀ یک نوع تخریب هم‌افزا ناشی از مجموعه‌ای از عوامل ذاتی، اقلیمی، بیولوژیکی و انسانی است که خود را در قالب سیماهای آسیب شکستگی، رسوب سطحی و تجمع زیستی با گونۀ شاخص گل‌سنگ بر بدنه نمایان ساخته است. Abstract The Urartian inscriptions, in the village of Seqindel in the central part of Varzghan city in East Azarbaijan province, belonging to the era of Sardori II, the king of Urartu, was inscribed on a stone in Zaghi mountain. This inscription is one of the unique works remaining from the expansion of the Urartian Kingdom in the east of Lake Urmia, which shows the history of their rule in the region, due to the lack of maintenance, most of it has been damaged and destroyed. According to the investigations carried out on the surfaces of the inscriptions, a cover of some kinds of lichens has affected almost all the rocks of the mountains in this region, and the bedrock of the inscriptions has not been spared from this damage. In addition, damage from vandalism and unauthorized digging can be seen in the body and foot of the inscription, which has endangered the health of the work. Because until now scientific and laboratory studies regarding the investigation of the method of making the work, the pathology of Seqindel Urartian inscription, and the identification of layers and possible destruction mechanisms on them, as well as the protection solution for it, have not been provided. To achieve this goal, laboratory studies were conducted on the structure and characteristics of the stone, as well as the types of damage caused to the body in different ways. The important questions of the research include: 1.What are the most serious damages in the body of the Urartian Seqindel inscription? 2.How have existing structural, climatic, and inherent phenomena and biological accumulations caused damage? In this regard, field studies show a type of synergistic destruction caused by a set of intrinsic, climatic, biological, and human factors, which manifests itself in the form of fracture damage, surface sedimentation, and biological accumulation with lichen as an indicator species on the body. Keywords: Inscription, Seqindel, Urartu, Pathology, Technology. Introduction The Urartian inscription of Seqindel is located approximately 2 km from the village of Seqindel, on the slope of Zaghi Mountain. It is situated near an archaeological site encompassing multiple historical periods, including the Bronze, Iron, Urartian, and Islamic eras. This inscription, primarily associated with the military campaign of Sarduri II, an Urartian king, is regarded as one of the significant artifacts of this period. The inscription is carved into a conical rock, measuring 4.5 by 5 meters, and consists of 10 lines of cuneiform text. Based on textual analysis, its age is estimated at approximately 2,750 years (Mashkour, 1953; Ebrahami, 2019; Dara, 2017). In the vicinity, the remains of a pre-Urartian fortress, measuring 245 by 140 meters, are located. Surrounding this fortress are stone walls and quadrangular rooms within its structure (Naseri-Someh, 2019: 310). This fortress has held particular importance across various periods, notably during the Urartian and Islamic eras. The Seqindel inscription was discovered by Dr. Mohammad-Javad Mashkour in 1951 (1330 in the Iranian calendar), and since then, several studies and documentation efforts have been conducted. These efforts include reproductions, mapping, and assessments of damage to the inscription. In 1968, the inscription was registered as a national monument under number 795, prompting numerous subsequent studies in the fields of pathology and preservation (The Registration Document, 1968). These studies have identified various forms of damage, such as the use of chisels to penetrate behind the stone and the potential use of dynamite to harm the inscription (Klesis and Kroll, 1980). In recent years, initiatives such as copying and creating replicas of the inscription have been undertaken (Bashash, 2007:  5). This research specifically examines the pathology and degradation processes of the Seqindel inscription, utilizing modern methods to document its current condition and analyze the physical-chemical properties and resistance of the stone. Field and laboratory studies have yielded valuable insights into the damages and present state of the inscription, providing data applicable to future preservation and restoration efforts. Discussion The climate of the Varzeqan region, as outlined in the climatology section, has an average temperature of 10.1°C, with summer maxima reaching 33°C and winter minima dropping to -22°C. The region receives an average annual rainfall of 343 mm, with relative humidity ranging from 52% to 82%, and experiences an average of 133 frost days. These characteristics classify the region as a cold climatic zone. Freezing typically occurs in November, December, January, February, and March, with average minimum temperatures of -2°C and maximum temperatures of -9°C (Pour-Asghar, Isfahani, and Akbarzadeh, 2022).     Based on Peltier’s (1950) model, which considers average temperature and annual rainfall as key factors in weathering, seven weathering models were proposed, encompassing chemical weathering, frost activity, erosion, and wind action. The model indicates that the warmest and wettest regions exhibit maximum chemical weathering, whereas the coldest and driest regions experience the least. In areas with very low temperatures, frost activity (physical weathering) predominates, alongside mechanical and chemical weathering processes. According to Nagel’s (2000) review of Peltier’s diagram, the climatic data for Varzeqan suggest that the Seqindel Urartian inscription lies at the boundary between moderate chemical weathering and frost-related weathering, where physical and mechanical weathering are more prominent. This implies that frost damage significantly contributes to the inscription’s degradation (Fig. 24).      The Seqindel stone inscription, with a porosity of 13.3%, likely exhibits increased surface porosity due to prolonged weathering, rendering it vulnerable to freeze-thaw cycles. In cold and dry mountainous regions like Azerbaijan, seasonal and diurnal temperature fluctuations result in a higher frequency of freeze-thaw cycles, causing greater damage compared to moderate or tropical climates. Furthermore, the absorption and retention of moisture in the stone across different seasons heighten its susceptibility to mechanical weathering, amplifying the impact of biological agents and erosion (Paterno, 1999).      Regarding the stone’s structure, surface erosion results from a combination of physical and chemical factors, driven by the expansion and freezing of water within the stone, occasionally compounded by structural or mineralogical weaknesses. Research indicates that minerals such as iron, quartz, and altered hematite contribute to damage, including color changes from iron dissolution, which produce an orange-brown appearance and surface deterioration. The presence of biological agents, such as lichen species, also threatens the inscription’s surface. Although lichens may cause minimal direct harm, their removal can expose the stone to further weathering, particularly if ultraviolet radiation intensifies. The presence of Rusavskia elegans lichens on the stone signals potential preservation needs, as certain lichens may mitigate weathering effects (Dmitrieva et al., 1995; ESA, 2010). Studies on lichens’ resilience in extreme environments suggest that these organisms may serve a protective role against weathering mechanisms. Conclusion The preservation issues of the Urartian inscription of Seqindel represent a multifaceted challenge that requires a multidisciplinary approach. Based on field findings, the inscription was handcrafted in several stages, including polishing, groundwork, and text carving. In the damage studies, the main destructive factors identified include human impact, climate, the surrounding environment, and biological pests. The results of physical and chemical tests showed that the environment significantly impacts the cracks caused by freeze-thaw cycles. Based on these findings, it is essential to develop a comprehensive preservation and restoration plan to address the issues. This plan prioritizes measures to prevent the inscription from falling, followed by filling the cracks and fissures caused by human and climatic damage. Finally, lichen removal and covering the inscription with a roof are suggested to reduce weathering and moisture risks, ensuring its long-term survival. Inscription, Seqindel, Urartu, Pathology, Technology. سنگ‌نوشته, کتیبه, سقین‌دل, اورارتو, آسیب‌شناسی, فن‌شناسی. 29 58 http://athar.richt.ir/browse.php?a_code=A-10-2045-2&slc_lang=fa&sid=2 2022/12/32024/06/27 1403/4/7 2023/04/112024/10/21 1403/7/30 Mehdi Razani Associate Professor, Department of restoration and archeology, Faculty of Applied Arts, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, Iran (Corresponding Author) مهدی رازانی razanimehdi@gmail.com 0000-0003-2704-4073 Yes دانشیار گروه مرمت و باستان سنجی، دانشکدۀ هنرهای کاربردی، دانشگاه هنر اسلامی تبریز، تبریز، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول) Leyli Nemani PhD Student, Restoration of Cultural and Historical Objects, Department of Restoration of Historical Monuments, Faculty of Conservation and Restoration, Art University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran لیلی نعمانی‌خیاوی nemani.leyli73@gmail.com 0000-0003-4116-4303 No دانشجوی دکتری، مرمت اشیا فرهنگی و تاریخی، گروه مرمت آثار تاریخی، دانشکدۀ حفاظت و مرمت، دانشگاه هنر اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران

fa خدای‌خانۀ مسجد جامع عتیق شیراز؛ بنیاد بنا، تحولات تاریخی و پرسش از ماهیت معماری خدای‌خانه، بنای یک‌اشکوب سنگی در میان صحن مسجد جامع عتیق شیراز است. این بنا را در گذشته بیت‌المصاحف می‌نامیدند و محل نگهداری نسخ قرآن شریف بود. خدای‌خانه در اثر چند مرتبه زمین‌لرزۀ حادث شده در دورۀ قاجاریه ویران شد و به‌صورت تلی از مصالح برهم انباشته درآمد. ویرانۀ خدای‌خانه در نخستین اقدامات مرمتی اداره کل باستان‌شناسی، از سال 1318ش. بازسازی شد. سیمای شناخته شدۀ امروزی این اثر، درواقع محصول همین بازسازی است. وضعیت یا وضعیت‌های پیشین این بنا موضوع پژوهش است؛ از این‌رو، پرسش از ماهیت معماری این بنا مطرح می‌شود؛ و این‌که سیر تاریخی بنای خدای‌خانه چیست؟ با این هدف که صورت اصیل این بنا تبیین شود. پژوهش به‌ روش «تاریخی-تحلیلی» و با بهره‌گیری از متون و اسناد تصویری تاریخی و مشاهده‌های میدانی به‌انجام رسیده است. در این پژوهش روشن شده که بنای خدای‌خانه به‌گمان از هنگام بنیان مسجد برپا شده و چند سده بعد دگرگونی‌هایی در آن پدید آمد. شاکلۀ اصلی خدای‌خانه در سدۀ هشتم هجری‌قمری با افزوده شدن برج‌هایی در چهار نبش بنا کامل شد؛ با این توضیح که پیش‌تر در سدۀ ششم-هفتم هجری‌قمری بنای میانی و رواق ستون‌دار ساخته شده بود. برپایۀ مستندات تاریخی، بنا در دو اشکوب ساخته شده بود. در صورت اولیه، خدای‌خانه در مرکز صحن مسجد قرار داشت. فضای یادگیری و قرائت قرآن بود و در آن قرآن‌های کهن و سی‌پاره‌های وقفی را نگه می‌داشتند. Abstract Khoday-khane is a one-story building with stone materials, which is located in the courtyard of the Masjed- e Jame- e Atigh of Shiraz. In the past, this building was called Bait-ul-Mosahaf and it was the place where the Quran was kept. Khoday- Khaneh was destroyed by several earthquakes during the Qajar period. This building was restored in the first restoration measures of the General Department of Archeology in 1318. The present face of this building is actually the product of this renovation. The previous conditions of this building are the subject of research. The main question is what is the nature, function and evolution of the architecture of the building? The research has been done by "historical-analytical" method and by using historical texts and visual documents and field observations. According to the findings of the research, the building of Khoday-khane was probably built at the same time as the foundation of the mosque, and a few centuries later, changes occurred in its building. With the addition of towers in the four corners of the building, the original form of Khoday-khane was completed in the 8th century of Hijri; Based on historical documents, the building was built on two floors. In its original form, Khoday-khane was located in the center of the mosque courtyard. It was the place to learn and read the Quran and kept the old and endowment Qurans there. Keywords: Shiraz, Jame Atiq Mosque, Khoday- Khaneh, Nature of Architecture, Historical Developments.  Introduction The Atigh Mosque of Shiraz was founded in 281 AH/894 (Moghaddisi, 1983, Vol. 2, 462) and, like other ancient buildings, has had its ups and downs over time, which can be recognized as the developments in its history and architecture. Naturally, all parts of the mosque have been affected by development, transformation, and other issues. The Khoday-Khaneh, which has a quadrangular design with towers at the four outer corners, is located in the middle of the mosque courtyard, has had a significant relationship with the historical developments of the mosque, and as a unique building, it can be attributed a special history. The known date of this building is 752 AH/1351, which is written on a stone and tile inscription. In the contemporary era, the first attention to preserving and maintaining the damaged historical structures of the Atigh Mosque of Shiraz began in the second decade of the twentieth century. The first part of the mosque complex to be restored was the Khoday-Khaneh building; this is a sign of the importance of this building. With the restoration and reconstruction, the Khoday-Khaneh acquired a new appearance compared to the previous ruins. After about eighty years, today it is possible to recognize the old structure and new measures have been taken in this research. The question will be answered: what was the original and original form of Khoday-Khaneh like and what function did it have? The answer to the question can certainly be clarified both in relation to the historical course of the mosque in general and in relation to the historical course of the architecture of Khoday-Khaneh in particular. Discussion The Khoday-Khaneh in the middle of the mosque courtyard is a one-story building that is located on a stone platform less than one meter high (Behrouzi, 1962: 92). This building has a rectangular plan with dimensions of 12.6 × 10 m and a height of 7.5 m, which, including the towers, reaches 15 m in length and width by 12.3 m. A portico with arched stone columns surrounds it. The middle space includes a square room with stone lattice windows and spaces where the staircase, entrance, and a small room are located. From the words of Moqaddasi, who refers to the house of the reciters and compares the mosques of Shiraz and Nishapur in the first centuries of the Hijri calendar, and Qomi's confused reference to the "shop" in the middle of the courtyard, it can be concluded that the building of the God-House was probably built at the same time as the foundation of the Shiraz mosque in 281 AH, by order of Amr Walith Saffari (Moqaddasi, 1906: 430; Qomi, 1352: 24). From the Quran dated 568 AH, which is dedicated to the "House of the Manuscripts" (Behrouzi, 1340, 68 and 69, Sami, 1347: 311), it can be understood that in the sixth century AH, the House of the Manuscripts was erected in the middle of the courtyard. Junaid Shirazi (d. 666 AH/1268) in his book Shadd al-ezar refers to Maulana Sa’ad al-Din Ahmad al-Farsi giving or studying lessons in the latticed room between the old mosque (Junaid Shirazi, 1950: 388). Elsewhere, the same author mentions the “Dar al-Masahif” between the mosque, where old copies of the Quran are kept (Junaid Shirazi, 1950: 288). The evidence that remains in the building from this time is Kufic inscriptions engraved on stone and fragments of decorations on the ceiling of the stairs leading to the roof of the Khoday-Khaneh (Sheibani and Nikzad, 2005: 34). With this description, the middle spaces, which include the square room and the adjoining rooms on the northern side, can be cautiously attributed to the sixth-seventh centuries AH. It is clear that some changes occurred in the Khoday-Khaneh building between the fourth and sixth centuries AH. If we consider the surrounding colonnaded portico and the central rooms to be at the same time, then there is no doubt that the existing building was erected in place of the original one. Because the columns and arches connected to it and the overall composition of the facade geometry, as explained by Galdiri in a comparative study of the tomb of Sheikh Yusuf Sarvestani, can be dated to the seventh century AH (Galdiri, 2001: 340). The date 752 AH/1351, which is on the inscription above the southwest tower, is the most accurate date that can be relied on. According to this inscription, Sheikh Abu Ishaq Inju built the building (Behrouzi, 1962). Galdiri, using architectural logic and examining the precedence and backwardness of construction at the point where one of the towers connects to a stone column, has proven that this date indicates a period of restoration with the addition of towers in the outer quadrant of the building (Galdiri, 2001: 340). A fragment from the Timurid Zafarnameh dated 935 AH/1529, which is kept in the Golestan Palace, contains a narrative from 806 AH/1404 that takes place in the old courtyard (Adl, 2001: 345) and Khoday-Khaneh is located in the middle of the courtyard. The upper floor is similar in general plan to the lower floor, but without columns and a portico. The most important feature of the upper floor is the presence of a cloister with windows and a dome. The inscription dated 820 AH/14017, in the handwriting of Abdullah Seirafi, which was installed in the Khoday-Khaneh by order of Mirza Sultan Ibrahim, son of Sultan Shahrukh Timuri, is apparently reminiscent of the construction at the same time, as Qazi Ahmad Qomi has suggested (Qomi, 1974: 24). As a result of the earthquakes of 1239 AH/1824, 1269 AH/1854 and 1301 AH/1884 and the resulting damage during the Qajar period, the Khoday-Khaneh also suffered major destruction. In the second half of the nineteenth century, 1302 AH/1888, when Dieulafoy visited the mosque, he mentioned the ruin and sad sight of the Khoday-Khaneh building (Dieulafoy, 1998: 465). According to Dieulafoy’ engraving, the surrounding portico has fallen to the ground, and the middle rooms have been largely destroyed. The four corner towers are still standing. In the half-century between Dieulafoy' visit and Wilber's visit in 1935/1313 AH, one of the cylindrical towers located in the northeast corner of the building collapsed and the high parts of the temple fell (Wilber, 1972: 62). Conclusion According to the description of Muqaddasi in the fourth century AH, the original building of the Khoday-Khana was also built, probably at the same time as the foundation of Atigh Jame mosque in the third century AH, by the order of Amr- o Laith- e Safari. Then, changes occurred in it around the sixth or seventh century AH, which are close to the present form of the building. The renovations and additions of the eighth century AH created a new design with the construction of towers and stabilized the architectural form of the Khoday-Khana. During these developments, the building had two floors and the spire was located on its highest part. A few centuries later, devastating earthquakes destroyed the mosque and the Khoday-Khana building, until in the second decade of the fourteenth century AH, this building was rebuilt in one floor. The existential nature of the Khoday-Khana building was defined in relation to the Quran, as it was called "Beit- e Qura" and "Beit- ol Musahaaf" in ancient times. The main function of the building was to teach and learn the Quran, and it was a particularly suitable place to store ancient and exquisite Qurans, sometimes in the handwriting of the Prophet's companions (Sahabe) and Imams, or to dedicate them. Qurans with a date of dedication to the Bayt- ol Musahaf of Atiq Jame mosque in Shiraz, from the 7th to the 13th centuries AH, remain and are kept in Pars museums. Over the course of a thousand years of history, the Khoday-Khaneh building has undergone changes in terms of its location in the mosque courtyard. These changes do not mean the building was moved, but rather occurred with the advancing and retreating of the edges of the courtyard. For example, with the expansion of the covered nave to the south during the Safavid period or the retreat of the northern nave during the renovation of the contemporary period, the edges of the courtyard moved closer to or further from the Khoday-Khaneh; but in the early and middle centuries, this building was located in the center of the mosque courtyard. There are no remains or remains of the original building of the temple, and archaeological excavation is needed. Shiraz, Jame Atiq Mosque, Khoday- Khaneh, Nature of Architecture, Historical Developments. شیراز, مسجد جامع عتیق, خدای‌خانه, ماهیت معماری, تحولات تاریخی. 59 88 http://athar.richt.ir/browse.php?a_code=A-10-2391-2&slc_lang=fa&sid=2 2022/12/32024/06/272024/04/12 1403/1/24 2023/04/112024/10/212024/05/12 1403/2/23 Zatollah Nikzad Assosiate Professor, Research Institute of Cultural Heritage and Tourism (RICHT), Tehran, Iran ذات‌الله نیک‌زاد Zatnikzad@yahoo.com 0000-0001-7034-4448 Yes دانشیار گروه بافت‌های تاریخی، پژوهشکدۀ ابنیه و بافت‌های فرهنگی تاریخی، پژوهشگاه میراث‌فرهنگی و گردشگری، تهران، ایران

fa شکل‌گیری مدارس نوین در ایران فضاهای آموزشی همواره تحت تأثیر تحولات فرهنگی، اجتماعی و تکنولوژیکی دستخوش تغییرات شده‌اند. این تغییرات، به‌ویژه در معماری مدارس، متناسب با شرایط فرهنگی، نیازهای آموزشی و تأثیرات خارجی شکل گرفته است. پژوهش حاضر با رویکرد تحلیلی- تاریخی است که ترکیبی از تحلیل اسناد و مدارک تاریخی به بررسی سیر تحول معماری مدارس نوین در ایران طی دوره‌های قاجار و پهلوی اول و دوم (۱۲۵۰ تا ۱۳۲۰ شمسی) می‌پردازد. روش پژوهش بر پایه مطالعات اسنادی - کتابخانه‌ای، بررسی تطبیقی و بازدیدهای میدانی استوار بوده و تحلیل داده‌ها به‌صورت کیفی انجام شده است. یافته‌ها نشان می‌دهد که معماری مدارس از اواخر قاجار، تحت تأثیر ورود نهادهای خارجی، میسیونرها و اندیشه‌های مدرن غربی دگرگون شده است. این تأثیرات در سازمان‌دهی فضاها، نحوه طراحی ساختمان‌ها، تغییر در شیوه استقرار کلاس‌ها و استفاده از مصالح مدرن مشهود است. مدارس از ساختار سنتی درون‌گرا فاصله گرفته و به­سمت برون‌گرایی و الگوهای فضایی اروپایی سوق یافته‌اند. از مهم‌ترین تغییرات کالبدی می‌توان به تحولات در دستگاه ورودی، حیاط مدارس، افزایش تعداد کلاس‌ها، تغییر در ابعاد و تناسبات فضاهای آموزشی و ارتقای کیفیت نورگیری اشاره کرد همچنین، تلفیق سبک‌های معماری سنتی و اروپایی منجر به شکل‌گیری بناهایی با سبک التقاطی شد که در آن‌ها، علاوه­بر حفظ برخی عناصر بومی، از شیوه‌های مدرن ساخت، فناوری‌های جدید و روش‌های بهینه‌سازی فضا بهره گرفته شده است. نتایج این پژوهش نشان می‌دهد که معماری مدارس نوین در ایران بازتابی از تغییرات آموزشی، فرهنگی و اجتماعی بوده و تحت تأثیر سیاست‌های کلان کشور در دوران قاجار و پهلوی بوده است. این پژوهش می‌تواند زمینه‌ای برای مطالعات تکمیلی در حوزه معماری فضاهای آموزشی نوین، بررسی تأثیرات سبک‌های وارداتی و تطبیق آن با نیازهای آموزشی معاصر فراهم نماید  Abstract Educational spaces have always undergone changes influenced by cultural, social, and technological transformations. These changes, particularly in school architecture, have evolved in response to cultural conditions, educational needs, and external influences. This study adopts an analytical-historical approach, combining the analysis of historical documents to examine the evolution of modern school architecture in Iran during the Qajar and Pahlavi I and II periods (1871–1941). The research method is based on documentary-library studies, comparative analysis, and field visits, with data analysis carried out qualitatively. The findings show that school architecture, from the late Qajar period onward, was transformed under the influence of foreign institutions, missionaries, and modern Western ideologies. These influences are evident in the organization of spaces, building designs, changes in classroom arrangements, and the use of modern materials. Schools moved away from the traditional introverted structure and shifted toward extroverted, European spatial patterns. Key architectural changes include alterations in the entrance design, school courtyards, an increase in the number of classrooms, changes in the dimensions and proportions of educational spaces, and improvements in natural lighting. Additionally, the fusion of traditional and European architectural styles led to the emergence of eclectic-style buildings that, while retaining some local elements, incorporated modern construction methods, new technologies, and optimized spatial solutions.The results of this study indicate that the architecture of modern schools in Iran reflects broader educational, cultural, and social changes and was shaped by the country’s macro policies during the Qajar and Pahlavi eras. This research can serve as a foundation for further studies in the field of modern educational space architecture, examining the impacts of imported styles and adapting them to contemporary educational needs. Keywords: Education, Modern Schools, Architecture.] Introduction The Qajar era holds significant historical and cultural importance, as it was a period of remarkable transformations in Iran and the world, leaving a profound impact on Iranian society. This era can be considered the starting point of innovations in Iranian art and architecture. Iran’s extensive interactions with Western civilization and the introduction of modern sciences and knowledge, particularly in the fields of architecture and education, led to fundamental changes. The transformation of Iran’s educational system, especially from the Qajar period onward, marks the transition from traditional education to a modern educational system. Before the establishment of modern schools, education in Iran was primarily conducted through traditional institutions such as Maktab-Khanehs (informal religious schools) and seminaries, which focused on religious studies, literature, and basic mathematics. With increased interactions between Iran and Western countries and the growing awareness of the need to reform the educational system, efforts to establish modern schools began. Research indicates that the formation of modern schools in Iran was influenced by various factors, including governmental modernization policies, social and economic needs, and the penetration of Western culture and knowledge. These modern schools gradually replaced the traditional Maktab-Khanehs, forming a new structure for public education. Given the importance of this subject, the present study takes an analytical approach to examine the process of modern school formation in Iran and analyze the impact of educational policies, intellectual movements, and cultural influences on this transformation. The aim of this study is to provide a comprehensive picture of the development of modern schools in Iran and to assess their effects on Iranian society Discussion The evolution of the educational system and school architecture in Iran has been shaped by cultural and social changes, as well as interactions with Western civilization. The Qajar era marked a turning point in the modernization of education and school architecture due to increased connections with the West and the introduction of new sciences. Prior to this, education in Iran was primarily conducted in traditional religious schools (Maktabs and Seminaries), which focused on religious studies, literature, and basic mathematics. However, with the establishment of the Dar ul-Funun school in 1851 by Amir Kabir, the first step toward modernizing the educational system was taken. This school introduced new subjects such as medicine, engineering, foreign languages, and military sciences, leaving a lasting impact on the structure of education and the design of schools. The interaction with Western culture and the need for modern education led to significant changes in the architecture of Iranian schools. Traditional schools were centered around a courtyard, reflecting introverted architectural principles. However, with the introduction of Western models, the central courtyard was replaced by connecting corridors, allowing access to a greater number of classrooms. This transformation marked a shift from traditional to extroverted architectural forms, increasing educational spaces and improving school organization. Modern schools gradually adopted three primary architectural layouts: linear, U-shaped, and L-shaped plans. In linear schools, classrooms were arranged in rows along corridors, making this design suitable for large student populations. U-shaped and L-shaped schools, on the other hand, incorporated central courtyards, allowing for greater interaction with outdoor spaces and providing better recreational and social areas for students. In addition to spatial transformations, the use of modern materials and technologies played a key role in school design. Structural steel columns, large windows, tile work, adequate natural lighting, iron railings, and sloped roofs were among the defining architectural features of schools during the Qajar and early Pahlavi periods. These advancements improved the quality of educational spaces and the functionality of school buildings. During the reign of Reza Shah Pahlavi, the government aimed to expand the educational system by establishing more schools throughout Iran. Unlike in the past, when education was largely reserved for specific social classes, these schools became accessible to the general public, contributing to the standardization and democratization of education. The findings of this research indicate that adopting Western school models and integrating them with Iran’s educational needs led to the creation of innovative learning spaces that transformed the structure, form, and functionality of schools. These schools not only influenced Iran’s educational system but also changed societal perceptions of education and scientific progress. Ultimately, these architectural and educational transformations laid a solid foundation for the expansion of modern education in Iran, with their effects continuing to the present day. Conclusion Architecture in every country naturally takes shape based on the culture, social conditions, and historical background of that region, undergoing various transformations over time. Iran is no exception to this rule. From the Qajar era, with the introduction of Western elements and missionaries, and later during the Pahlavi period, with Iranian students studying abroad and returning to the country, the influence of Western culture and architecture became evident in Iranian buildings.  The findings of this research indicate that with fundamental changes in Iran’s educational system and the adoption of Western school models, new spatial elements emerged in Iranian schools that had not previously existed. These spaces included classrooms, administrative offices, workshops and laboratories, dining halls, social areas, and connecting hallways.  Changes in school architectural layouts and the integration of Western architectural elements with traditional Iranian architecture led to a transformation in the arrangement and organization of educational spaces. During this period, hallways replaced central courtyards as the primary connective and separating elements in schools. Hallways played a crucial role in creating order, separation, and interconnection between classrooms, enabling the placement of more classrooms on one or both sides of the corridors. In general, school layouts during this time commonly featured classrooms arranged along one or two sides of hallways, with staircases at entrances or vertical connections allowing access to upper floors and various spaces.  Three main architectural plans were used for schools during this period: linear, U-shaped, and L-shaped forms. In linear layouts, classrooms were continuously arranged in a row along hallways, a structure particularly common in large and densely populated schools. U-shaped and L-shaped plans, due to their central courtyards or open spaces, had greater interaction with the external environment and provided better social and recreational areas for students. These open-layout designs became more widely adopted in modern Iranian schools as they aligned with the evolving educational needs and the emphasis on organization and order in school spaces.  With the establishment and consolidation of the new educational system during the Qajar and early Pahlavi periods, a standardized model for school construction emerged. This model primarily employed linear, U-shaped, and L-shaped architectural forms, while maintaining courtyards as essential spaces for relaxation and connection with nature. In the construction of new schools, in addition to modern design principles, advanced building materials and techniques were introduced. Materials such as metal windows, steel columns, railings, plaster moldings, ceramic tiling in restrooms, and well-planned lighting from various directions became common. Additionally, sloped roofs, characteristic of European eclectic architecture, were incorporated into these school buildings, further reflecting the blend of Western and Iranian architectural influences. Education, Modern Schools, Architecture. آموزش, مدارس نوین, معماری. 89 126 http://athar.richt.ir/browse.php?a_code=A-10-3789-1&slc_lang=fa&sid=2 2022/12/32024/06/272024/04/122024/07/1 1403/4/11 2023/04/112024/10/212024/05/122024/09/13 1403/6/23 yasaman jaberi PhD student, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran یاسمن جابری yasaman.jaberi@yahoo.com 0009-0005-0947-8283 No دانشجوی دکتری، گروه معماری، دانشکدۀ معماری و شهرسازی، واحد تهران مرکزی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران Hossein Soltanzadeh Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Central Tehran Branch of Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran (Corresponding Author) حسین سلطان‌زاده hos.soltanzadeh@iauctb.ir.ac 0000-0003-3974-5205 Yes استاد گروه معماری، دانشکدۀ معماری و شهرسازی، واحد تهران مرکزی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول) Ghazal Keramati Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Central Tehran Branch of Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran غزال کرامتی gh.keramati@iauctb.ac.ir 0000-0002-1029-2495 No استادیار گروه معماری، دانشکدۀ معماری و شهرسازی، واحد تهران مرکزی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران shervin Mirshahzadeh Assistant Professor, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Central Tehran Branch of Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran شروین میرشاهزاده she.mirshahzadeh@iauctb.ac.ir 0000-0003-4862-3664 No استادیار گروه معماری، دانشکدۀ معماری و شهرسازی، واحد تهران مرکزی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، تهران، ایران

fa بررسی و تحلیلی بر نمایش تاریخ و باستان‌شناسی در موزۀ ملی ایران موزۀ ملی ایران یک موزۀ باستان‌شناسی است که حجم عظیمی از آثار خود را مستقیماً از کاوش‌ محوطه‌های باستان‌شناسی به‌دست می‌آورد. در مقایسه با دیگر موزه‌هایی که در جهان، آثار ایرانی را در تملک دارند و یا به نمایش می‌گذارند، این یک امتیاز ویژه برای موزۀ ملی ایران است. اما با عنایت به رسالت‌ جدید موزه در عصر حاضر، در راستای توجه به مخاطب، نمایش بهینه و روایت‌سازی پرسش اینجاست که موزۀ ملی ایران چگونه از این امتیاز در نمایش اشیاءِ خود در موزه بهره برده تا مخاطب را افزون‌بر آگاهی بر اهمیت حفظ و نگهداری میراث گذشته، به یادگیری در زمینۀ باستان‌شناسی سوق دهد؟ و این خصلت‌ها چه نمودی در شیوه‌های بازنمایی و ارائۀ آثار در موزه دارند؟ در این پژوهش، پس از مروری بر ادبیات مرتبط با تاریخچه و رسالت موزه‌های باستان‌شناسی، به آن دست از ارزش‌های ویژۀ مجموعه‌های باستان‌شناسی برای نمایش موزه‌ای پرداخته و سپس، به مدد یک تحلیل ساختاری و محتوایی، کار موزۀ ملی در نمایش اشیاء و مجموعه‌های باستان‌شناختی ارزیابی می‌شود. رویکرد پژوهش کیفی و روش گردآوری داده‌ها، افزون‌بر استفاده از داده‌های کتابخانه‌ای، مشاهده مستقیم و نیز مصاحبه با دست‌اندرکاران موزه است. یافته‌های پژوهش حاکی از غلبۀ طبقه‌بندی گاه‌شمارانه براساس دوره‌‌های اصلی باستان‌شناختی و سلسله‌های پادشاهی است که با نگاهی موضوعی و برجسته‌سازی اشیاء شاخص تکمیل شده است. همچنین، تلاش برای بازآفرینی زمینۀ تاریخی، رویکرد زیبایی‌شناسی به چیدمان مجموعۀ باستان‌شناسی، از طریق هم‌نشینی اشیاء هم‌اندازه و مشابه با نظمی دقیق و رعایت فاصله‌ها، از دیگر تمهیدات موزۀ ملی برای نمایش اشیاء باستان‌شناسی است. در نهایت، این پژوهش با بهره‌گیری از مبانی نظری نمایش اشیاء باستان‌شناسی و نیز رسالت‌ و اهداف این شکل از موزه‌ها، بهره‌گیری از رویکردهایی چون تاریخ زنده و باستان‌شناسی معاصر را در نمایش این موزه پیشنهاد می‌کند.  Abstract The National Museum of Iran is an archaeological museum that directly acquires a vast majority of its artifacts from excavations at archaeological sites. Compared to other museums around the world that possess or exhibit Iranian artifacts, this is a unique advantage for the National Museum of Iran. However, considering the museum's new mission in the contemporary era, focusing on audience engagement, meaning-making, and storytelling, the question arises: How has the National Museum of Iran leveraged this advantage in displaying its artifacts to not only raise awareness about the importance of preserving and protecting the past heritage but also to educate visitors about archaeology? What are the special characteristics of archaeological objects and collections that a museum can utilize for interpretation and education? And how are these characteristics reflected in the ways artifacts are displayed and presented in the museum? This article, after reviewing the literature related to the history and mission of archaeological museums, will examine the unique values of archaeological collections for museum display and then, through a structural and content analysis, evaluate the National Museum's work in displaying archaeological objects and collections. The research approach is qualitative, and data collection methods include the use of library data, direct observation, and interviews with museum staff. The research findings indicate a predominance of chronological classification based on major archaeological periods and royal dynasties, which is complemented by a thematic approach and highlighting of significant objects. Additionally, efforts to recreate historical contexts and an aesthetic approach to the arrangement of archaeological collections, through the juxtaposition of objects of similar size and type with precise order and spacing, are among the National Museum's other measures for displaying archaeological objects. Finally, this article, drawing on theoretical foundations of displaying archaeological objects and the missions and goals of this type of museum, proposes the use of approaches such as living history and contemporary archaeology in the museum's displays. Keywords: Museum of Archaeology, Display, Archaeological Collection, National Museum of Iran, Education. Introduction The National Museum of Iran holds a distinguished position among archaeological museums due to its direct access to artifacts from excavation sites across the country. Unlike many other institutions that rely on acquired artifacts, this museum benefits from the continuous influx of archaeological discoveries, which enriches its collections and provides a unique opportunity for education and interpretation. The role of archaeological museums has evolved beyond mere preservation, shifting toward audience engagement and meaningful storytelling. Consequently, the National Museum of Iran faces the challenge of effectively utilizing its rich collections to educate visitors about Iran’s historical and archaeological heritage. This study aims to examine the museum’s exhibition strategies, focusing on how it presents archaeological objects to create awareness about cultural preservation and education. It explores whether the museum employs methods that align with contemporary trends in archaeological museology and evaluates the extent to which its displays contribute to historical understanding. Through a qualitative research approach, including literature review, direct observation, and interviews with museum staff, this research identifies the main techniques used in the museum’s display strategies. Findings suggest that the National Museum of Iran primarily employs a chronological classification system, organizing artifacts according to major archaeological periods and dynasties. This method provides visitors with a clear historical framework while incorporating thematic approaches that highlight significant objects. The museum also attempts to recreate historical contexts by arranging artifacts in a manner that reflects their original use. These strategies align with established museological principles but also reveal areas where further enhancement could enrich visitor experience. Discussion The National Museum of Iran adopts a structured approach to artifact presentation, integrating both chronological and thematic methods. The chronological classification serves as the foundation, presenting artifacts in a sequential order that traces Iran’s historical development. This arrangement is supplemented by thematic groupings, where objects are displayed based on material composition, function, or cultural significance. For instance, pottery, inscriptions, and metalwork are often grouped to facilitate a comparative understanding of craftsmanship and usage across different periods. A distinctive feature of the museum’s display strategy is its effort to recreate historical contexts. Objects are arranged with careful consideration of size, type, and spatial organization to evoke the environments in which they were originally used. This approach enhances visitor engagement by offering a more immersive experience. However, despite these efforts, there are certain limitations in the museum’s display methods. While the arrangement effectively conveys historical continuity, it could benefit from incorporating more interactive elements to foster deeper engagement. Additionally, the museum’s current presentation methods could better integrate contemporary archaeological perspectives. Featuring ongoing excavations, conservation efforts, or insights from archaeologists could establish a stronger connection between past and present. Such an approach would not only emphasize the relevance of archaeology in modern society but also encourage visitors to appreciate the dynamic nature of historical interpretation. The museum also employs various techniques to provide contextual information, including explanatory panels, maps, and historical illustrations. While these aids support visitor comprehension, their effectiveness could be enhanced through improved design and accessibility. A more structured and visually engaging interpretive framework could further facilitate audience engagement, making the exhibitions more informative and appealing to diverse visitor demographics. Conclusion The National Museum of Iran plays a crucial role in preserving and presenting the country’s archaeological heritage. Its direct access to artifacts from excavation sites provides an invaluable resource for education and storytelling. By employing a chronological classification system supplemented by thematic arrangements, the museum successfully provides visitors with a structured understanding of Iran’s historical evolution. Additionally, efforts to recreate historical contexts contribute to a richer exhibition experience, allowing visitors to visualize ancient environments. However, the museum’s current display strategies, while effective, leave room for improvement. Enhancing visitor engagement through interactive elements and contemporary archaeological narratives could strengthen the museum’s educational impact. The integration of archaeological fieldwork, conservation efforts, and research findings into exhibitions could create a more dynamic and comprehensive experience for visitors. Moreover, refining interpretive materials, such as exhibition labels and informational panels, could further improve accessibility and comprehension. In conclusion, while the National Museum of Iran has made significant strides in archaeological display, adopting innovative and audience-centered approaches could elevate its role as an educational and cultural institution. By aligning with global best practices in museology and prioritizing visitor engagement, the museum can fulfill its mission of preserving Iran’s heritage while inspiring future generations to appreciate its historical significance.   Museum of Archaeology, Display, Archaeological Collection, National Museum of Iran, Education. موزۀ باستان‌شناسی, نمایش, مجموعۀ باستان‌شناسی, موزۀ ملی ایران, نمایش باستان‌شناسی. 127 151 http://athar.richt.ir/browse.php?a_code=A-10-3808-1&slc_lang=fa&sid=2 2022/12/32024/06/272024/04/122024/07/12024/08/2 1403/5/12 2023/04/112024/10/212024/05/122024/09/132024/09/22 1403/7/1 Mojdeh Roohi Azizi PhD Candidate in Restoration of Cultural and Historical Objects, Department of Restoration of Cultural and Historical Objects, Faculty of Conservation and Restoration, Iran University of Art, Tehran, Iran مژده روحی‌عزیزی mojde84@yahoo.com 0009-0006-7431-280X No دانشجوی دکتری رشته مرمت اشیاء فرهنگی تاریخی، گروه مرمت اشیاء فرهنگی و تاریخی، دانشکدۀ حفاظت و مرمت، دانشگاه هنر ایران، تهران، ایران Kouros Samanian Associate Professor, Department of Restoration of Cultural and Historical Objects, Faculty of Conservation and Restoration, Iran University of Art, Tehran, Iran. (Corresponding Author) کورس سامانیان Samanian_k@yahoo.com 0000-0002-9190-4894 Yes دانشیار گروه مرمت اشیاء فرهنگی و تاریخی، دانشکدۀ حفاظت و مرمت، دانشگاه هنر ایران، تهران، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول) Saeed Khoddari Naeini Associate Professor, Department of Museum Studies, Faculty of Conservation and Restoration, Iran University of Art, Tehran, Iran. سعید خودداری‌نائینی khoddari@gmail.com 0000-0003-3063-7611 No دانشیار گروه مطالعات موزه، دانشکدۀ حفاظت و مرمت، دانشگاه هنر ایران، تهران، ایران

fa بررسی تناسبات به کاررفته در نمای کارخانه‌های صنعتی شهر تبریز (نمونۀ موردی: کارخانۀ چرم‌سازی خسروی تبریز) معماری صنعتی به‌عنوان یک حوزه مهم و جذاب در عرصه معماری با تمرکز بر استفاده از مواد سخت و زیبا، تمرکز بر سادگی و کارکردی بودن، و البته توجه به جزئیات و تناسبات، به یک ارتباط بین زیبایی و عملکرد در ساختمان‌ها می‌پردازد. در نمای ساختمان‌های صنعتی تبریز، تناسبات معماری با بهره‌گیری از مدول‌های ثابت تکراری از قالب‌های آجری، با توجه به جزئیاتی مثل پنجره‌ها و بازشوها صورت می‌پذیرد. این تناسبات به زیبایی و کاربری بهینه این ساختمان‌ها کمک کرده و همچنین ارتباط بین زیبایی معماری و عملکرد کارخانه‌ها را به‌وضوح نمایان کرده است. از دیدگاه معماری، این تناسبات نشانگر یک ترکیب منحصر به فرد از اصول معماری صنعتی اروپایی و عناصر محلی تبریز می‌باشد. روش پژوهش حاضر توصیفی- تحلیلی است. از مطالعات کتابخانه‌ای - اسنادی و مشاهدات میدانی به گردآوری اطلاعات تناسبات به‌کاررفته در نمای کارخانه‌های صنعتی پرداخته است. تحلیل این تناسبات به ارتقاء زیبایی و کارایی ساختمان‌ها کمک کرده و ارتباط واضحی بین زیبایی معماری و عملکرد کارخانه‌ها ایجاد نموده است. این تناسبات همچنین با تلفیق عناصر معماری صنعتی اروپایی و عناصر محلی، شاهد یک نوآوری در زمینه معماری صنعتی در شهر تبریز می‌باشد. در این مطالعه، بررسی تناسبات به‌کاررفته در نمای کارخانه‌های صنعتی در شهر تبریز، با مورد مطالعاتی کارخانه چرم‌سازی خسروی، انجام شده است. این تحقیق بر روی تجزیه‌وتحلیل عناصر معماری و اصول طراحی مورداستفاده در ساختمان‌های صنعتی در تبریز و بر روی تناسبات معماری در بازشوها و ورودی‌ها و الگوهای مورداستفاده در این بخش‌ها، به‌ویژه بررسی جنبه‌های زیبایی‌شناختی و کارکردی نمای ساختمان‌ها تمرکز دارد. با مطالعه کارخانه چرم‌سازی خسروی به‌عنوان یک نمونه خاص، این تحقیق به‌دنبال ارائه برداشت‌هایی درباره رابطه میان هندسه، تزئینات و معماری صنعتی در دوره پهلوی در تبریز است. یافته‌های این پژوهش به بهترین درک از ویژگی‌های معماری و اهمیت تاریخی ساختمان‌های صنعتی در تبریز کمک می‌کند. نتایج نشان داده است که در نماهای ساختمان‌های صنعتی نیز همچون سایر بناهای تاریخی از تناسبات طلایی و هندسی استفاده شده است. همچنین با تحلیل تمام الگوهای به‌دست‌آمده از بازشوها و ورودی‌ها به یک الگوی پایه در نماها دست یافتیم که می‌توان از این الگوی پایه در طراحی بازشوها و ورودی‌های دیگر بناها استفاده کرد که به تنوع و زیبایی نمای ساختمان‌ها کمک می‌کند. Abstract Industrial architecture, as a significant and intriguing field, focuses on the use of sturdy and aesthetically pleasing materials, emphasizing simplicity and functionality, while paying close attention to details and proportions. In the façades of industrial buildings in Tabriz, architectural proportions are achieved through repetitive fixed modules of brick formwork, considering details such as windows and openings. This approach, coupled with the blending of European industrial architectural elements and local features, exhibits an innovation in the realm of industrial architecture in Tabriz. This study investigates the proportions used in the façades of industrial factories in Tabriz, with a case study on the Khosravi Tannery. The research analyzes architectural elements and design principles utilized in industrial buildings in Tabriz, focusing on architectural proportions in openings and entrances, including patterns employed in these areas, particularly examining the aesthetic and functional aspects of building façades. Through the analysis of the Khosravi Tannery, the research aims to present insights into the relationship between geometry, ornamentation, and industrial architecture during the Pahlavi era in Tabriz. The results indicate that, in the façades of industrial buildings, as with other historical structures, the golden ratio and geometric proportions have been employed. By analyzing all patterns derived from openings and entrances, a fundamental pattern in façades was identified, which can be applied in designing openings and entrances of other buildings, enhancing the diversity and aesthetic appeal of façades. Keywords: Geometry, Ornaments, Industrial Factories, Pahlavi Era, Tabriz. Introduction Iron, as the primary material in industrial buildings, has played a crucial role in architectural transformations. The introduction of European architecture in the late Qajar period brought significant changes to Iran's construction styles. This shift became particularly prominent during the Pahlavi era, when modern materials and the expertise of foreign architects, especially Germans, led to the development of structures with distinct architectural styles. These transformations were especially evident in Tabriz, a major industrial center and a gateway for modernity in Iran, where manifestations of modern industrial architecture emerged. The façades of industrial factories, as a fundamental aspect of industrial architecture, have always been influenced by architectural principles and geometric proportions, such as the golden ratio and the Fibonacci spiral. This research aims to analyze the façades of industrial factories in Tabriz during the Pahlavi period, examining the impact of these proportions on their design. The study adopts a descriptive-analytical methodology, utilizing library and archival research along with field observations to collect data. Historical maps indicate that fourteen industrial factories were established in Tabriz during this period, though only a few remain intact today. As a case study, five buildings from the Khosravi Leather Complex, one of the most renowned industrial factories in Tabriz, have been analyzed. This research seeks to identify the geometric patterns, applied proportions, and decorative elements in their façades. Ultimately, the study aims to answer the question of which geometric proportions were employed in the façades of Tabriz’s industrial factories during the Pahlavi era and what patterns can be discerned in the design of openings and entrances. Discussion During the First Pahlavi era, the influence of Russian and German architects in Tabriz led to the development of industrial buildings with outward-oriented forms that maintained a direct connection with the street. These structures featured prominent vertical lines, tall columns, and large windows, enhancing their sense of grandeur, while their overall composition remained horizontally expansive and firmly grounded. Key characteristics of this period included symmetry, modular repetition in façades, and the integration of traditional Iranian architecture with international styles. The use of brick cladding and tile decorations was a strategic approach to harmonizing industrial architecture with the region’s cultural identity. The analysis of openings in the Khosravi Leather Factory revealed that door and window designs incorporated brick arches and lintels with stone keystones, forming a framed light passage. Fifteen distinct shape patterns and thirteen dimensional models were identified, with geometric analyses demonstrating the presence of the golden ratio (1.618) and other mathematical proportions such as 1.41 and 1.73 in some patterns. Among them, Pattern No. 11 was recognized as the most geometrically cohesive, making it a reference model for industrial design. The examination of entrances in this industrial complex identified nine different design patterns. The golden spiral, along with the proportions of 1.73 and 1.618, was found in certain entrances, whereas the 1.41 and 1.118 ratios were absent. Unlike the common First Pahlavi architectural trend of elevating entrances above street level, the factory entrances were designed flush with the street, indicating a stronger adherence to local architectural traditions. The decorative brickwork used in these structures, although influenced by modern European architecture, was crafted by Iranian artisans and showcased a fusion of traditional and Western styles. Notable decorative elements included window frame detailing, column capitals, cornices, and entrance inscriptions, demonstrating the period’s blend of aesthetic and structural refinement. The primary construction materials included brick (used in both structural and façade elements), wood, metal railings, galvanized sheets for roofing, and stone for base walls. The widespread use of brick instead of tiles on façades was a defining feature of this era. Findings indicate that industrial architecture during this period preserved traditional characteristics while incorporating modern European geometric principles and proportions. The application of golden ratios and mathematical proportions in openings and entrances contributed to visual cohesion and enhanced spatial quality, exemplifying the successful integration of modern industrial architecture with Iran’s vernacular architectural heritage. Conclusion The research findings indicate that architects in the design of industrial factory facades in Tabriz have been significantly influenced by specific geometric principles and proportions. The application of proportional systems such as 1/41, 1/73, and the golden spiral in the design of entrances and openings has played a pivotal role in shaping the visual identity of these structures. A detailed analysis of the patterns present in these facades reveals that the 1/41 proportion is the most prevalent for entrances, while the 1/73 proportion dominates in openings. Furthermore, according to Table (11), pattern 11 is the most common in openings, and per Table (19), patterns 3 and 9 exhibit the highest proportionality in entrances, serving as fundamental design templates. Additionally, in the design of the Khosravi leather-making buildings, distinctive features such as cubic volumes and pedimented facades with arched windows have been employed, reflecting the influence of Qajar architectural styles as well as Western architectural impacts, particularly from European engineers. These influences are clearly manifested in the juxtaposition and synthesis of tradition and modernity, highlighting an endeavor to craft a distinct identity within Iran's industrial architecture. Given the innovative structural designs—such as large halls supported by trussed beams and metal sheets—it can be inferred that these buildings not only reflect the industrial transformations of their era but also embody the interaction between diverse cultural and architectural paradigms. Thus, the examination of proportions and geometry in these structures has not only influenced their visual dimensions but has also contributed to a deeper understanding and appreciation of industrial architecture in contemporary Iran. This study represents a significant step toward enriching research on geometry and architectural proportions in Iran and may serve as a foundation for further investigations in this field. Geometry, Ornaments, Industrial Factories, Pahlavi Era, Tabriz. هندسه, تزئینات, کارخانه‌های صنعتی, دوره پهلوی, تبریز. 153 182 http://athar.richt.ir/browse.php?a_code=A-10-2504-4&slc_lang=fa&sid=2 2022/12/32024/06/272024/04/122024/07/12024/08/22024/08/2 1403/5/12 2023/04/112024/10/212024/05/122024/09/132024/09/222024/10/15 1403/7/24 Azita Belali Oskoyi Professor, Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, Iran (Corresponding Author) آزیتا اسکویی a.oskoyi@tabriziau.ac.ir 0000-0003-0050-5378 Yes استاد گروه معماری و شهرسازی، دانشکدۀ معماری و شهرسازی، دانشگاه هنر اسلامی تبریز، تبریز، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول) Elham Zolfi Master’s student in Islamic Architecture, Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Faculty of Architecture and Urban Planning, Tabriz Islamic Art University, Tabriz, Iran الهام زلفی el.zolfi@tabriziau.ac.ir 0000-0003-0050-5378 No دانشجوی کارشناسی ارشد معماری اسلامی، گروه معماری و شهرسازی، دانشکدۀ معماری و شهرسازی، دانشگاه هنر اسلامی تبریز، تبریز، ایران