Parseh Journal of Archaeological Studies

fa مبادلات تجاری سامانیان با شمال اروپا بر پایۀ متون دوران اسلامی و سکه‌ها Trade Relations of the Samanid Dynasty with Northern Europe: Insights from Islamic Texts and Coins Discoveries تخصصی باستان‌شناسی Special Archeology پژوهشي Research <div style="text-align: justify;">در میانۀ سدۀ 20م.، تعداد زیادی از سکه‌های نقرۀ سامانیان، در روسیه و بخش‌هایی از اروپا به‌دست آمد که بیانگر مراودات تجاری از آسیا تا اروپا در سدۀ چهارم هجری‌قمری است و حکایت از روابط برون‌مرزی سامانیان با بازرگانان اروپایی در این بازۀ زمانی دارد. در این‌راستا، این پژوهش یک پرسش اصلی را دنبال می‌کند که، چگونه گسترش مبادلات در دورۀ سامانی به شمال اروپا رسید؟ این پژوهش با تکیه‌بر منابع مکتوب دوران اسلامی و یافته‌های سکه‌شناسی، باهدف شناخت مسیر‌های تجاری مبادلات برون‌مرزی سامانیان در غرب قلمرو به درهم‌های یافت‌شده از امیران سامانی در اروپای شرقی، مرکزی و شمالی اشاره دارد. پژوهش پیشِ‌رو، به شیوۀ اسنادی و مطالعات کتابخانه‌ای انجام‌شده است. همچنین روش پژوهش تاریخی-تحلیلی است. در طی قرون سوم و چهارم هجری‌قمری/ نهم و دهم میلادی، خزرها مرکز تجارت با غرب (بلغار، روسیه، بیزانس، سواحل بالتیک و...) و شرق (ایران و دیگر سرزمین‌های اسلامی) بوده‌اند. گزارشات متون کهن دوران اسلامی بیانگر آن است که تجارت خارجی سامانیان در این زمان، در سطح وسیعی گسترش‌یافته است؛ ازجملۀ این مسیرها، راهی بود که از قلمرو سامانیان به اروپای شرقی و سواحل دریای بالتیک، منتهی می‌شد. مناطقی مانند خوارزم، سرزمین غزها، ولگا و سواحل بالتیک، هر یک نقش زیادی در تبادلات تجاری این مسیر تجاری، برعهده داشتند که در این پژوهش بدان پرداخته شده است. درهم‌های یافت‌شده از امیران سامانی ازجمله: «اسماعیل بن احمد»، «احمد بن اسماعیل»، «نصر دوم بن احمد»، «نوح بن نصر»، «منصور بن نوح» در اروپای شرقی، مرکزی و شمالی شاهدی بر گسترش مبادلات تجاری در این عهد است. </div> <div style="text-align: justify;">Abstract Numerous silver coins from the Samanid dynasty have been unearthed in Russia and various European regions, suggesting significant trade interactions between Asia and Europe during the 4th century AH, and illustrating the Samanid dynasty’s international relations with European merchants at that time. This study addresses a central question: How did the Samanid era’s trade expansion extend to Northern Europe? Utilizing Islamic historical documents and numismatic evidence, this research seeks to trace the Samanid dynasty’s trade routes across Western territories, with a particular focus on the Dirhams issued by Samanid emirs found in Eastern, Central, and Northern Europe. Employing historical-analytical methods through documentary and library research, the study explores the trade dynamics during the 3rd and 4th centuries AH/9th and 10th centuries AD. During these centuries, the Khazars served as a pivotal trading link between the West (Bulgaria, Russia, Byzantium, and the Baltic coasts) and the East (Iran and other Islamic regions). Ancient Islamic records reveal that the Samanid dynasty’s international commerce was highly developed during this period. One notable trade route ran from Samanid territories to Eastern Europe and the Baltic Sea shores. Key regions such as Khwarazm, the land of Oghuz, Volga, and the Baltic coasts were crucial to the trade activities along this route, which is examined in this study. The discovery of Dirhams from Samanid emirs, including Ismail Samani, Ahmad Samani, Nasr II, Nuh I, and Mansur I in Eastern, Central, and Northern Europe, serves as evidence of the extensive trade exchanges during this period. Keywords: Samanid Dynasty, Coin, Islamic Era Texts, Exchanges, Northern Europe. Introduction Researchers have segmented the history of the Samanid dynasty into two primary phases: the pre-independence period (819-875 AD / 203-261 AH) and the post-independence period (875-1005 AD / 261-395 AH) (Jalolzoda, 2018: 15). While there is consensus on this chronological division, numismatic findings indicate that the origins of the pre-independence era may extend to as early as 191 AH. Coins serve as a dependable resource for exploring this subject, and it is recognized that during the dynasty’s initial phase in Transoxiana, local trade utilized Bukhar Khudahs coins, which were confined within the region (Ibid: 17). The discovery sites of Samanid coins suggest that in this early phase, the coins did not circulate beyond the borders of the Samanid realm at the time. In the subsequent period, known as the independence era of the Samanid dynasty, the regime operated under the “official endorsement of the Abbasid Caliphate” and received “authorization” to produce both gold and silver coins (Ibid: 18). This era saw the exportation of Samanid coins beyond their dominion. This study employs ancient Islamic manuscripts to investigate the Samanid dynasty’s trade interactions with territories outside their domain, and numismatic evidence from beyond the Samanid borders corroborates the expansion of their trade relations into broader European regions. Research Objective: The aim is to explore the trade pathways utilized by the Samanid dynasty for international exchanges in Western territories and to analyze the Dirhams issued by Samanid emirs found in Eastern, Central, and Northern Europe. Research Question: How did the Samanid dynasty’s trade activities extend to Northern Europe during their era? Research Methodology: Utilizing a historical-analytical approach, this study leverages documentary and library research to assess the spread of Samanid coins outside the traditional boundaries of the Samanid dynasty. By examining numismatic evidence alongside historical and geo-historical documents, the extent of the Samanid dynasty’s financial interactions with Northern Europe is scrutinized. In this study, areas where coins have been discovered are treated as “primary data,” whereas “historical and geo-historical” documents are used as “secondary sources.” Through detailed analysis and classification of the collected data, conclusive results will be derived. The Introduction and Decline of Samanid Dynasty Dirham Imports into Europe  Starting from the late 9th century AD, the Samanid dynasty began exporting substantial amounts of silver coins to promote trade with other regions (Perrie, 2006: 54). Serving as a conduit, Russia facilitated the export of silver to Europe for approximately two centuries, a process through which Samanid Dirhams were introduced to Sweden (Kovalve, 2002: 3). Numerous caches have been unearthed along the Volga River, from western Russia to Kazan, revealing stocks of Samanid Dirhams. In the 10th century AD, these Dirhams made their way to Northern Europe and Scandinavia through the territories along the Volga and the Bulgars residing in the Middle Volga, as corroborated by texts from the Islamic era (Jonsson et al., 1989: 251; Kovalve, 2002: 1). Ibn Fadlan reports that the route from Transoxiana to Khwarazm, extending to Itil and the Bulgars, as well as the pathway from Bukhara through Khwarazm heading northwest directly towards the Kama River and the Bulgars, was heavily trafficked by traders (Ibn Fadlan, 1966, 98). He provides a detailed account of this road; in Bulgar, he noted the presence of Muslim groups, including those from Khwarezm. The principal trade route originated in Khwarazm and traversed the territory of the Khazars, situated on the northeastern coast of the Caspian Sea (Hudud al-’Alam, 1993: 122-123), reaching its capital, “Itil ,” at the Volga River’s mouth in Russia, and proceeded towards Eastern Europe. The Russians exchanged goods with the Bulgars for Samanid Dirhams, facilitating the introduction of these coins into the northern regions of Russia (Kovalve, 2002: 3). This trade eventually extended into Scandinavia‌, and the unearthing of Islamic coin hoards in Northern Europe substantiates this assertion (Heidemann, 2010: 9). Samanid-era coins that arrived in Russia were utilized as money for trading purposes and were locally circulated, gaining popularity in the 10th century AD (Grossman & Walker, 2013: 332). Over the course of the 10th and 11th centuries, these coins traveled from Central Asia to the Baltic area (William, 2016: 63). In the 10th century, Samanid Dirhams became extensively popular across Northern Europe, with numerous coins discovered in Norway, Denmark, and Sweden (Grossman and Walker, 2013: 332). The decline of the Samanid dynasty signaled the end of the influx of Samanid Dirhams into Europe, resulting in a reduced number of these coins reaching Scandinavia (Johan 1980, 4). Conclusion Geographical sources offer valuable insights into the trade routes connecting the Samanid dynasty’s territory with Europe, detailing the merchants active along these routes and the goods exported from European nations to the Samanid domain. The Samanid territory was linked to Europe via several pathways. The principal starting points were Transoxiana and Khwarazm, situated along the Amu Darya River. During this period, the link between Russia, Khwarazm, and Transoxiana was established through Itil  in the Volga Delta. Another starting point was the coastal cities along the Caspian Sea. Furthermore, an additional route connected the Samanid dynasty to regions along the Volga and Itil , beginning from Rey and extending to the Caspian Sea coastline. This route, traversing through Transoxiana and reaching Merv in Khorasan, enabled the substantial movement of commercial goods from Khorasan, Khazar, and Kama Bulgaria to Rey. Additionally, there was a path leading from Itil to the Russian territories, specifically to Kuyaba in the west and Tselinnoye in the northwest. Along these routes, merchants carried goods from the Samanid dynasty’s territory to various locations in Eastern and Central Europe, including areas around the Volga River in Russia, as well as Poland, Germany, and Hungary. In exchange, they imported products from these European regions, notably including Slavic and Finnish slaves. During this period, the coins initially utilized for purchasing goods in Russia, Bulgaria, the Qebchaq steppe, and other adjacent areas were traded for goods in the Scandinavian countries (Sweden, Norway, and Denmark). Additionally, Khwarazm traders moved up the Volga River to acquire commercial products, thereby enabling the importation of goods from Eastern Europe into Kama Bulgaria, the capital of the Kama Bulgars, and subsequently to Khwarazm. Russian traders in Kama Bulgaria engaged with Khwarazm merchants and journeyed to the land of the Khazars to conduct trade. The Khazars played an active role in facilitating the transport of goods from the Samanid territory across the Ural and Volga regions and further into the Baltic, acting as effective intermediaries. In this period, traders from Russia, Iran, and Viking communities converged in the Bulgar region to trade goods. Additionally, Hungarian merchants transported slaves from Scandinavian areas to the markets in Bulgar. At the same time, goods from the East were being imported into Scandinavia. The Vikings moved their merchandise southward, engaging in exchanges or trades with Eastern goods in the Volga region. This trade primarily facilitated the influx of silver into Northern Europe, while Scandinavia exported furs and slaves, commodities that were attractive to the Samanid dynasty. Numismatic evidence along these trade routes reveals that, over the years, Samanid Dirhams made their way from Eastern Europe to Northern Europe. These coins have been discovered in various Northern European regions including Scandinavia, Scotland, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Finland, and the Baltic coasts. Typically, these Dirhams are linked to rulers such as Ismail Samani, Ahmad Samani, Nasr II, Nuh I, and Mansur I. The primary minting locations for these Dirham coins were largely in Samarkand, Al-Shash, Balkh, and Andarab.</div> سامانیان, سکه, متون دوران اسلامی, مبادلات, شمال اروپا. Samanid Dynasty, Coin, Islamic Era Texts, Exchanges, Northern Europe. 189 214 http://journal.richt.ir/mbp/browse.php?a_code=A-10-790-1&slc_lang=fa&sid=1 Najmeh Nouri نجمه نوری noori_najmeh@yahoo.com 0000-0002-3316-7232 No Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Conservation and Restoration, Isfahan University of Art, Isfahan, Iran. گروه باستان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ حفاظت و مرمت، دانشگاه هنر اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران. Ahmad Salehi Kakhki احمد صالحی‌کاخکی salehi.k.a@aui.ac.ir 0000-0002-1849-0701 Yes Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Conservation and Restoration, Isfahan University of Art, Isfahan, Iran (Corresponding Author). گروه باستان‌شناسی، دانشکدۀ حفاظت و مرمت، دانشگاه هنر اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران (نویسندۀ مسئول).