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Nasrin Beyk Mohammadi, Seyd Hashem Hosseyni, Sepideh Moradi Mohtasham,
year 2, Issue 3 (5-2018)
year 2, Issue 3 (5-2018)
Abstract
Abstract
In the 5th and 7th centuries A.H., was created great transformation in all arts, industry, and sciences (including pottery art). Seljuk potteries, were restored the glaze technique, so can be attributed lusterware style to them. Kashan at the beginning of the seventh century A.H. was one of the major centers of pottery and for several decades produced wares that they had fine technique. Almost contemporary with Iran, Raqqa in Syria under rule of Ayyubid, was became one of the major centers for the production of pottery and artwork. The traces of Raqqa and Kashan are so similar, so that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish them. The purpose of this article, identify similarities and differences is between two styles of pottery of Kashan and Raqqa, and eventually, identify of interaction is between these two styles. In this regard, in this study, we have tried to answer the following questions: What are the similarities and differences between these two styles of pottery? Which of these two styles of pottery is older? The research method in this article is based on method of descriptive – analytical, and from library resources has been used to explain the subject. By reviewing the traces of lusterware style of Kashan and Raqqa can achieve some kind of fusion style that is influenced by the art of pottery of Iran. So, pottery style of Kashan has been older and potters of Kashan have been able to many of techniques and decorative art themselves transferred to Raqqa.
Keywords: Seljuk, Ayyubid, Lusterware, style of Kashan, style of Raqqa.
Introduction
In Seljuk period (fifth and sixth century A.H.) significant progress in all arts, especially pottery art was happened. In this period, all known pottery techniques were used: engraving, relief-work, latticework, gilding, and enameling. The traces with decoration of luster glaze are one of the innovations of this era. The attractiveness this type of glaze, was creation of golden and metallic polished in potteries without use of the gold. The Ayyubid period in Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean, not only in the field of conquest and war, but also from the point of culturally was effective. They created new styles in the arts, but their rule was short. The Ayyubid pottery is known more with Raqqa pottery. By studying the traces of pottery this period, we could be identified combination style that has been under the influence of pottery art of Iran and Egypt. Almost contemporary with Iran, Raqqa in Syria under rule of Ayyubid, was became one of the major centers for the production of pottery and artwork. The traces of Raqqa and Kashan are so similar, so that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish them. In this study, we have tried to answer the following questions: What are the similarities and differences between these two styles of pottery? Which of these two styles of pottery is older? The research method in this article is based on method of descriptive – analytical, and from library resources has been used to explain the subject.
Research findings
Kashan at the beginning of thirteenth century A.D. was one of the major centers of pottery. This city for several decades has produced crocks of very delicate. In Kashan was produced group of slip-painted ware that including are types of bowls, trays, and decanters. Second group from Kashan pottery is lusterware that including: bowls, trays, decanters, vases, jars, and wall tiles. On the tiles of Iran in Seljuk period has been used different decorations such as human and animal and foliage, and effect of painting art and book designing can be seen in all of them. In lusterware style of Kashan less than blue color has been used in glaze. All portions of pottery are decorated with painting of women’s pictures, girls, arabesque motifs, and Farsi and Arabic inscriptions. Generally, the pottery of Kashan in Seljuk period can be classified in the following types: bowl, dish, drinking bowls such as jar, decanter, ewer, and also types of dishes with human and animal forms, and Star-shaped tiles.
Raqqa in Seljuk period was only center outside of Iran that created significant amount from pottery and art tiles that in terms of technique were distinctive. In Raqqa has been made pottery with relief decoration (Barbotin), unglazed, muddy relief decoration, and with green and blue glazes. relief decoration, with green and blue glazes. Another technique, painting with Azure and Cyan colors on glazed liners. These crockeries were decorated with lusterware technique. The decorations of Raqqa pottery are divided into two main groups: first group, main designs that are usually human or animal; and second group, decorative motifs that have done in the background. Raqqa pottery is classified into the following types: bowl, dish, jar, and decanter.
Conclusion
In the Seljuk period beautiful products of Kashan pottery have been exported to throughout the Islamic world and this has led to the expansion of Kashan pottery. On the other hand, pottery of Raqqa style (that as an inseparable art of the Ayyubid period that was formed in the city of Raqqa and on the Euphrates coast) was similar with pottery style of Seljuk period. The traces of Raqqa and Kashan are so similar, so that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish them. However, the construction of lusterware before the Iran in Egypt and Iraq has been common and arrived in Iran through Iraq, but peak of the production of this pottery has been in Seljuk period and in Iran. According to this, the possibility of the migration of Kashan artists to the Raqqa or neighboring countries could be true.
In the 5th and 7th centuries A.H., was created great transformation in all arts, industry, and sciences (including pottery art). Seljuk potteries, were restored the glaze technique, so can be attributed lusterware style to them. Kashan at the beginning of the seventh century A.H. was one of the major centers of pottery and for several decades produced wares that they had fine technique. Almost contemporary with Iran, Raqqa in Syria under rule of Ayyubid, was became one of the major centers for the production of pottery and artwork. The traces of Raqqa and Kashan are so similar, so that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish them. The purpose of this article, identify similarities and differences is between two styles of pottery of Kashan and Raqqa, and eventually, identify of interaction is between these two styles. In this regard, in this study, we have tried to answer the following questions: What are the similarities and differences between these two styles of pottery? Which of these two styles of pottery is older? The research method in this article is based on method of descriptive – analytical, and from library resources has been used to explain the subject. By reviewing the traces of lusterware style of Kashan and Raqqa can achieve some kind of fusion style that is influenced by the art of pottery of Iran. So, pottery style of Kashan has been older and potters of Kashan have been able to many of techniques and decorative art themselves transferred to Raqqa.
Keywords: Seljuk, Ayyubid, Lusterware, style of Kashan, style of Raqqa.
Introduction
In Seljuk period (fifth and sixth century A.H.) significant progress in all arts, especially pottery art was happened. In this period, all known pottery techniques were used: engraving, relief-work, latticework, gilding, and enameling. The traces with decoration of luster glaze are one of the innovations of this era. The attractiveness this type of glaze, was creation of golden and metallic polished in potteries without use of the gold. The Ayyubid period in Egypt and the Eastern Mediterranean, not only in the field of conquest and war, but also from the point of culturally was effective. They created new styles in the arts, but their rule was short. The Ayyubid pottery is known more with Raqqa pottery. By studying the traces of pottery this period, we could be identified combination style that has been under the influence of pottery art of Iran and Egypt. Almost contemporary with Iran, Raqqa in Syria under rule of Ayyubid, was became one of the major centers for the production of pottery and artwork. The traces of Raqqa and Kashan are so similar, so that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish them. In this study, we have tried to answer the following questions: What are the similarities and differences between these two styles of pottery? Which of these two styles of pottery is older? The research method in this article is based on method of descriptive – analytical, and from library resources has been used to explain the subject.
Research findings
Kashan at the beginning of thirteenth century A.D. was one of the major centers of pottery. This city for several decades has produced crocks of very delicate. In Kashan was produced group of slip-painted ware that including are types of bowls, trays, and decanters. Second group from Kashan pottery is lusterware that including: bowls, trays, decanters, vases, jars, and wall tiles. On the tiles of Iran in Seljuk period has been used different decorations such as human and animal and foliage, and effect of painting art and book designing can be seen in all of them. In lusterware style of Kashan less than blue color has been used in glaze. All portions of pottery are decorated with painting of women’s pictures, girls, arabesque motifs, and Farsi and Arabic inscriptions. Generally, the pottery of Kashan in Seljuk period can be classified in the following types: bowl, dish, drinking bowls such as jar, decanter, ewer, and also types of dishes with human and animal forms, and Star-shaped tiles.
Raqqa in Seljuk period was only center outside of Iran that created significant amount from pottery and art tiles that in terms of technique were distinctive. In Raqqa has been made pottery with relief decoration (Barbotin), unglazed, muddy relief decoration, and with green and blue glazes. relief decoration, with green and blue glazes. Another technique, painting with Azure and Cyan colors on glazed liners. These crockeries were decorated with lusterware technique. The decorations of Raqqa pottery are divided into two main groups: first group, main designs that are usually human or animal; and second group, decorative motifs that have done in the background. Raqqa pottery is classified into the following types: bowl, dish, jar, and decanter.
Conclusion
In the Seljuk period beautiful products of Kashan pottery have been exported to throughout the Islamic world and this has led to the expansion of Kashan pottery. On the other hand, pottery of Raqqa style (that as an inseparable art of the Ayyubid period that was formed in the city of Raqqa and on the Euphrates coast) was similar with pottery style of Seljuk period. The traces of Raqqa and Kashan are so similar, so that it is sometimes difficult to distinguish them. However, the construction of lusterware before the Iran in Egypt and Iraq has been common and arrived in Iran through Iraq, but peak of the production of this pottery has been in Seljuk period and in Iran. According to this, the possibility of the migration of Kashan artists to the Raqqa or neighboring countries could be true.
Nasrin Beyk Mohammadi, Sepideh Moradi Mohtasham,
year 2, Issue 6 (3-2019)
year 2, Issue 6 (3-2019)
Abstract
Archaeological evidence and the study of remains from prehistory to the Islamic era show that astronomy has been prevalent among ancient peoples for thousands of years. Astronomy made a great progress in the Islamic era and was used in both science and astrology. In the middle Islamic Period, the motifs used on pottery varied widely, so that the origins of pottery motifs on the one hand and the interpretation of its concepts on the other challenged scholars and has been caused disagreement and divisions between them, insofar one group refers to pre-Islamic influences especially the Sassanians and the other seeks to interpret it with the ideas of the community context in which these motifs were formed. The necessity of this research, therefore, is due to the vacuum felt by the authors in locating the purports of pottery motifs by an astronomical approach. The forgoing essay is rooted in questions such as "Should the origins of medieval pottery motifs be merely searched in the pre-Islamic era?", "How the constellations were reflected on the pottery motifs of this era?" The methodology of this paper is historical-analytical-comparative and based on and library studies. In the process of researching, we first done to gathering statistical samples from museums, drawing the motifs with CorelDraw software and matching the pottery designs with constellations and in the continuation of the research, library studies have been carried out to trace the semantic themes and meanings of historical documents. The achievement of a comparative study of pottery motifs with constellations showed that astronomy and constellation discussions formed part of the credence and beliefs of the medieval peoples that often incorporated with superstitions and supernatural beings. Therefore, some of the themes of pottery motifs can be attributed to superstitious beliefs of constellations.
Keywords: Pottery, Middle Ages, Constellations, Astronomy, Astrology.
Introduction
Astronomy in Islamic times consists of two parts: Astrology (Astrology and Superstition) and Science (Vegetarianism, 2009: 20). Agriculture, prediction of phenomena such as, eclipse and calendar design and timing are the most important reasons to pay attention. Evidence suggests that astronomical rulings were popular during this time, so that the dependence of the affairs of life on the celestial bodies gave rise to a wide range of superstitions. Due to the prohibition on the use of gold, silver and metal utensils in the Islamic era, one of the important sources of this "pottery" era is the beliefs and values of artists and clients in the motifs of Islamic pottery. Pottery has greatly improved in the Middle Ages, with a variety of pottery construction techniques, motifs and ornaments.
The origins of pottery motifs and the interpretation of its concepts have challenged, disagreed and multiplied the researchers. Hence the necessity of research on pottery of the Middle Ages is due to the lack of comprehensive research and void felt by the writers on the astronomical approach of pottery ornamentation.
Questions and Hypotheses: Two questions are asked, "Should the origins of the medieval pottery motifs be searched only in pre-Islamic times?" And "How have the constellations reflected the motifs?" Hypotheses state that "the similarities of the motifs of these two eras cannot be understood solely as the reason for their origin from the pre-Islamic era and must be found in the intellectual context of those who ordered them at that time and in social and political conditions" and "given the progress of astronomy and its influence. It is possible for people to trace the origin of motifs in constellations and astronomical topics. "
Methodology: The method of this research is historical-analytical-comparative based on library studies which initially collected statistical samples from museums, designed drawings with CorelDraw software, and compared pottery designs with constellations.
Matching the Pottery Motifs of the Middle Ages with the Constellations
This section of the paper studies the reflection of astronomy on medieval pottery motifs from two scientific and superstitious perspectives on the basis of different and common statistical examples of the time, which have not been studied from an astronomical approach so far. These works include three specimens of ceramics with scientific function and 11 specimens of astrology and superstitions that are further adapted to their motifs and themes by the constellations mentioned in the Suralququebb book.
Reflection of the Constellations on Pottery with Scientific Function
The scientific reflections of the constellations on the motifs include three containers held at the Ashmolean, Metropolitan and Boston Museum.
The designs on these three containers include the role of the sun in the center and the six famous planets (Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) and the twelve eclipses that collectively exist on earthenware and can be used for special purposes such as education, Clay astrolabe set the calendar and courtyard because astronomy education and learning was in the hands of the rulers, scientists, and scholars at that time, and the limited number of these dishes confirms the public claim of the dishes.
Reflection of Constellations on Pottery Using Astrology (superstitions)
This section refers to the constellation symbols of the North Face, the Exterior Area, and the South Face on the pottery.
Deb Akbar: A blue-and-black plate with the role of a bear and 27 stars inside it and eight stars outside it (sixth century AH) is held at the Los Angeles Museum of Art. (Dehkhoda, 1373: below Deb Akbar).
Figures (inflamed): Plate of Zarrinfam (6th and 7th centuries AH) with human role in his hand 11 stars and outside those two stars, made in Kashan, is kept at the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto. (Sufi, 2002: 44).
Essence: Enamel plate (6th and 7th centuries AH) with the role of a woman sitting on a 13-star bed, made in Kashan at the Metrolithin Museum. (Sufi, 2002: 74).
Nasr Ta'air: From the north faces is a bird that is adaptable to the two eagle (5th and 6th century AH at the David Museum) and vulture (6th and 7th century AH at the Metropolitan Museum) there are nine stars inside it and six stars outside it. (Sufi, 2002: 102)
Al-Fars al-Thani: A Seljuk-era gold plate with a winged horse and 20 stars inside it, built in the city of Rey, is kept at the Metropolitan Museum (Sufi, 2002: 109).
Thor: Gross-style green pottery with the role of a cow and 33 stars inside it and 11 stars outside it (5th and 6th centuries AH) is preserved in the Sincinati Museum. (Sufi, 2002: 129).
Cancer: Porcelain clay molded with white monochrome glaze with 9 stars inside it and four stars outside it (5th and 6th centuries AH) probably produced by Kashan or Ray and is kept in the British Museum. (Sufi, 2002: 148).
Assad: The Golden Lion Bowl with the role of a lion inside him of 27 stars and outside of the eight stars (sixth century AH) made by Kashan is held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. (Sufi, 2002: 152).
Kolb and Arneb: The Albarlow-style Zinfam jar with the role of dog and rabbit (sixth century AH) made by Kashan is kept at the Brooklyn Museum. (Sufi, 2002: 230, 233)
Courageous: The bowl is kept in the Boston Museum by painting it under the snake's glaze inside the 25 stars and outside those two stars, related to the Seljuk era, made by Kashan. (Sufi, 2002: 250)
Conclusion
The comparative study of medieval pottery motifs with constellations shows that astronomy and its topics were widely popular among the people of this period because of the rulers' support for it in both scientific and superstitious dimensions. Also, the twelve-face facial motifs, with the greatest number of illustrations, are of particular interest to the people of that time. Now the answer to the question, "Should the origins of medieval pottery motifs be searched only in the pre-Islamic era," said the origin and concept of many bizarre animal and human motifs derived from widespread superstitious beliefs about constellations in That is the era. In response to the second question, "How have the constellations reflected on the motifs?" It can be said that the male and female gender constellations come in two groups for special containers and single use, superstitiously derived from people's belief in supernatural powers. However, the illiteracy of the potter in this regard, and only the aesthetic attention, as well as the distortion of astronomy by superstitious beliefs, have made the difference between motifs and constellations.
Keywords: Pottery, Middle Ages, Constellations, Astronomy, Astrology.
Introduction
Astronomy in Islamic times consists of two parts: Astrology (Astrology and Superstition) and Science (Vegetarianism, 2009: 20). Agriculture, prediction of phenomena such as, eclipse and calendar design and timing are the most important reasons to pay attention. Evidence suggests that astronomical rulings were popular during this time, so that the dependence of the affairs of life on the celestial bodies gave rise to a wide range of superstitions. Due to the prohibition on the use of gold, silver and metal utensils in the Islamic era, one of the important sources of this "pottery" era is the beliefs and values of artists and clients in the motifs of Islamic pottery. Pottery has greatly improved in the Middle Ages, with a variety of pottery construction techniques, motifs and ornaments.
The origins of pottery motifs and the interpretation of its concepts have challenged, disagreed and multiplied the researchers. Hence the necessity of research on pottery of the Middle Ages is due to the lack of comprehensive research and void felt by the writers on the astronomical approach of pottery ornamentation.
Questions and Hypotheses: Two questions are asked, "Should the origins of the medieval pottery motifs be searched only in pre-Islamic times?" And "How have the constellations reflected the motifs?" Hypotheses state that "the similarities of the motifs of these two eras cannot be understood solely as the reason for their origin from the pre-Islamic era and must be found in the intellectual context of those who ordered them at that time and in social and political conditions" and "given the progress of astronomy and its influence. It is possible for people to trace the origin of motifs in constellations and astronomical topics. "
Methodology: The method of this research is historical-analytical-comparative based on library studies which initially collected statistical samples from museums, designed drawings with CorelDraw software, and compared pottery designs with constellations.
Matching the Pottery Motifs of the Middle Ages with the Constellations
This section of the paper studies the reflection of astronomy on medieval pottery motifs from two scientific and superstitious perspectives on the basis of different and common statistical examples of the time, which have not been studied from an astronomical approach so far. These works include three specimens of ceramics with scientific function and 11 specimens of astrology and superstitions that are further adapted to their motifs and themes by the constellations mentioned in the Suralququebb book.
Reflection of the Constellations on Pottery with Scientific Function
The scientific reflections of the constellations on the motifs include three containers held at the Ashmolean, Metropolitan and Boston Museum.
The designs on these three containers include the role of the sun in the center and the six famous planets (Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn) and the twelve eclipses that collectively exist on earthenware and can be used for special purposes such as education, Clay astrolabe set the calendar and courtyard because astronomy education and learning was in the hands of the rulers, scientists, and scholars at that time, and the limited number of these dishes confirms the public claim of the dishes.
Reflection of Constellations on Pottery Using Astrology (superstitions)
This section refers to the constellation symbols of the North Face, the Exterior Area, and the South Face on the pottery.
Deb Akbar: A blue-and-black plate with the role of a bear and 27 stars inside it and eight stars outside it (sixth century AH) is held at the Los Angeles Museum of Art. (Dehkhoda, 1373: below Deb Akbar).
Figures (inflamed): Plate of Zarrinfam (6th and 7th centuries AH) with human role in his hand 11 stars and outside those two stars, made in Kashan, is kept at the Aga Khan Museum in Toronto. (Sufi, 2002: 44).
Essence: Enamel plate (6th and 7th centuries AH) with the role of a woman sitting on a 13-star bed, made in Kashan at the Metrolithin Museum. (Sufi, 2002: 74).
Nasr Ta'air: From the north faces is a bird that is adaptable to the two eagle (5th and 6th century AH at the David Museum) and vulture (6th and 7th century AH at the Metropolitan Museum) there are nine stars inside it and six stars outside it. (Sufi, 2002: 102)
Al-Fars al-Thani: A Seljuk-era gold plate with a winged horse and 20 stars inside it, built in the city of Rey, is kept at the Metropolitan Museum (Sufi, 2002: 109).
Thor: Gross-style green pottery with the role of a cow and 33 stars inside it and 11 stars outside it (5th and 6th centuries AH) is preserved in the Sincinati Museum. (Sufi, 2002: 129).
Cancer: Porcelain clay molded with white monochrome glaze with 9 stars inside it and four stars outside it (5th and 6th centuries AH) probably produced by Kashan or Ray and is kept in the British Museum. (Sufi, 2002: 148).
Assad: The Golden Lion Bowl with the role of a lion inside him of 27 stars and outside of the eight stars (sixth century AH) made by Kashan is held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. (Sufi, 2002: 152).
Kolb and Arneb: The Albarlow-style Zinfam jar with the role of dog and rabbit (sixth century AH) made by Kashan is kept at the Brooklyn Museum. (Sufi, 2002: 230, 233)
Courageous: The bowl is kept in the Boston Museum by painting it under the snake's glaze inside the 25 stars and outside those two stars, related to the Seljuk era, made by Kashan. (Sufi, 2002: 250)
Conclusion
The comparative study of medieval pottery motifs with constellations shows that astronomy and its topics were widely popular among the people of this period because of the rulers' support for it in both scientific and superstitious dimensions. Also, the twelve-face facial motifs, with the greatest number of illustrations, are of particular interest to the people of that time. Now the answer to the question, "Should the origins of medieval pottery motifs be searched only in the pre-Islamic era," said the origin and concept of many bizarre animal and human motifs derived from widespread superstitious beliefs about constellations in That is the era. In response to the second question, "How have the constellations reflected on the motifs?" It can be said that the male and female gender constellations come in two groups for special containers and single use, superstitiously derived from people's belief in supernatural powers. However, the illiteracy of the potter in this regard, and only the aesthetic attention, as well as the distortion of astronomy by superstitious beliefs, have made the difference between motifs and constellations.
Sasha Riahi Moghadam, Mohammad Hasan Talebian, Asghar Mohammad Moradi,
year 7, Issue 25 (12-2023)
year 7, Issue 25 (12-2023)
Abstract
Abstract
Today, architectural heritage management faces many challenges due to the extent of assets, limited financial resources, development threats and change in concepts and social values. Accordingly, comprehensive principles are essential for integrated management and conservation prioritization. Most developed or developing countries in the region have reached a logical framework for the classification of immovable cultural heritage as an instrument for management and conservation, But in Iran, an independent policy and approach in this field has not been presented yet. This study tries to develop theoretical concepts in the field of classification system by reviewing the constitutions, national guidelines and experiences of countries of the common cultural field of Iran in East and Central Asia. The main question is the types of approaches, Classification levels and how to evaluate the assets in the decision-making process in the countries of the region. Due to the subject, the research approach is qualitative and with the method of documentary study, first, policies and actions are reviewed and regulated and then the content analysis done by descriptive-interpretive and comparative. According to the research findings, achieve an appropriate mechanism to prioritize the level of conservation for the implementation of integrated policies in order to raise awareness of local communities and economic participation, respect the rights of private owners and facilitate future decisions, has been the main aims of classification. Architectural heritage classification in case countries is done with a Managerial- Conservative approach in a specific system. In this process, after comprehensive identification and listing, based on criteria of Cultural Significance, Historical and Architecture importance, Outstanding Values, Uniqueness, Authenticity and Integrity, Aesthetic features and at risk, by the advisory committee in the presence of government officials, experts and stakeholders, level of assets is evaluated and determined. Finally, classification is considered as a tools to explain the management approach and level of conservation.
Keywords: Architectural Heritage, Classification, Heritage Management, Conservation, Asia.
Introduction
Architectural heritage, like biology, requires an integrated and centralized organization system and pattern for classification, given the wide and diverse range of assets. Iran has many cultural properties from prehistoric period to modern times that are difficult and intricate to manage and protect based on the current situation. Despite the passage of more than one hundred years of modern cultural thought in Iran, to date, no independent policy and approach for classification of immovable cultural heritage has been presented; while most developed or developing countries in the region have reached a logical framework in this regard.
One of the main challenges that led to the formation of this research is the lack of appropriate tools to create a unified procedure in decisions and conservative measures. This study tries to help develop knowledge in the field of management and conservation by review, survey and analyzing constitutions, guidelines, policies and experiences of countries with a common cultural sphere with Iran in East and Central Asia. Achieving the aims, approaches, evaluation process and criteria for classification of architectural heritage in other countries in the region is the main purpose of this study. The two main questions of this research are: 1-What policies and approaches have the countries of East and Central Asia used in the system of management of assets and classification of architectural heritage? 2-What is the level and process of decision-making in evaluating the classification of the architectural heritage of these countries? This research has a qualitative approach and the method used is descriptive-interpretive. Research data have been collected and organized through documentary studies and have been evaluated by interpreting and analyzing the content.
Identified Traces
Japan is a leader in the classification of heritage among the countries of the East Asian region, and the Republic of Korea has largely followed its policy. Tangible cultural in Japan are first divided into two categories, “national treasures” and “important cultural”, and then national treasures are divided into two groups: “architectural heritage” and “fine arts and crafts”; finally, architectural heritage is classified according to a “Designation System” at three levels: national, regional and local. South Korea first classifies its heritage into three levels: national, provincial, and local, and then categorizes each into different groups. Thus, South Korea’s cultural heritage is classified into five levels based on national, provincial, or local significance, period of construction, and location, with intangible, tangible, movable, and immovable heritage.
China lags behind other countries in the region in terms of classification due to many challenges such as the large number of assets, political conflicts, as well as rapid development. China’s architectural heritage is classified into three levels of protection, including national, provincial and local, and unclassified assets are listed and registered only to inform the Authorities of the location and type of the assets. Hong Kong, in a specific process and according to an administrative system, classifies architectural heritage into three levels, including: Grade 1: Buildings with outstanding features and competencies that must be maintained; Grade 2: Buildings with special qualifications that are protected selectively and on a priority basis; Grade 3: Buildings with relative competencies that will be desirable to protect and if conservation is not possible, other methods and tools can be substituted.
The policy of management and protection of architectural heritage in Turkey and Egypt emphasizes the implementation of laws with international standards and the promotion of world heritage sites as tourist destinations and the use of existing capacities such as local councils, endowments, municipalities and the private sector. In these countries, decisions on classification are made by interdisciplinary advisory committees at the regional and national levels. The Government of India considers classification to be a subset of the categories “economic”, “cultural” and “environmental” and considers this policy to be in the interest of society and the people. Indian architectural heritage is classified into three levels: One: Buildings of national or historical significance. Two: buildings of regional or local importance and Three: Important buildings for the urban landscape that evoke architectural, aesthetic or sociological features.
Conclusion
The process of architectural heritage conservation includes inclusive activities that the provision of management tools can greatly help to prioritize and facilitate actions by responsible Authorities and the community. Therefore, it would be useful to develop logical principles for classification of architectural heritage by reviewing the experiences of other countries. According to the research findings, achieve an appropriate mechanism to prioritize the level of conservation for the implementation of integrated policies in order to raise awareness of local communities and economic participation, respect the rights of private owners and facilitate future decisions, has been the main aims of classification. Architectural heritage classification in case countries is done with a Managerial- Conservative approach in a specific system. In this process, after comprehensive identification and listing, based on criteria of Cultural Significance, Historical and Architecture importance, Outstanding Values, Uniqueness, Authenticity and Integrity, Aesthetic features and at risk, by the advisory committee in the presence of government officials, experts and stakeholders, level of assets is evaluated and determined. According to the structure of laws and policies in East and Central Asia, architectural heritage works are classified into three levels: National, Provincial (state, city, and region) and Local (municipalities and councils).
Acknowledgment
The authors feel obliged to express their gratitude to the anonymous reviewers of the journal who graciously accepted the task and enriched the content of the article with their constructive suggestions.
Observation Contribution
Equally between authors.
Conflict of Interest
The authors, while adhering to publication ethics, explicitly declare the absence of any conflict of interest in this research.
Today, architectural heritage management faces many challenges due to the extent of assets, limited financial resources, development threats and change in concepts and social values. Accordingly, comprehensive principles are essential for integrated management and conservation prioritization. Most developed or developing countries in the region have reached a logical framework for the classification of immovable cultural heritage as an instrument for management and conservation, But in Iran, an independent policy and approach in this field has not been presented yet. This study tries to develop theoretical concepts in the field of classification system by reviewing the constitutions, national guidelines and experiences of countries of the common cultural field of Iran in East and Central Asia. The main question is the types of approaches, Classification levels and how to evaluate the assets in the decision-making process in the countries of the region. Due to the subject, the research approach is qualitative and with the method of documentary study, first, policies and actions are reviewed and regulated and then the content analysis done by descriptive-interpretive and comparative. According to the research findings, achieve an appropriate mechanism to prioritize the level of conservation for the implementation of integrated policies in order to raise awareness of local communities and economic participation, respect the rights of private owners and facilitate future decisions, has been the main aims of classification. Architectural heritage classification in case countries is done with a Managerial- Conservative approach in a specific system. In this process, after comprehensive identification and listing, based on criteria of Cultural Significance, Historical and Architecture importance, Outstanding Values, Uniqueness, Authenticity and Integrity, Aesthetic features and at risk, by the advisory committee in the presence of government officials, experts and stakeholders, level of assets is evaluated and determined. Finally, classification is considered as a tools to explain the management approach and level of conservation.
Keywords: Architectural Heritage, Classification, Heritage Management, Conservation, Asia.
Introduction
Architectural heritage, like biology, requires an integrated and centralized organization system and pattern for classification, given the wide and diverse range of assets. Iran has many cultural properties from prehistoric period to modern times that are difficult and intricate to manage and protect based on the current situation. Despite the passage of more than one hundred years of modern cultural thought in Iran, to date, no independent policy and approach for classification of immovable cultural heritage has been presented; while most developed or developing countries in the region have reached a logical framework in this regard.
One of the main challenges that led to the formation of this research is the lack of appropriate tools to create a unified procedure in decisions and conservative measures. This study tries to help develop knowledge in the field of management and conservation by review, survey and analyzing constitutions, guidelines, policies and experiences of countries with a common cultural sphere with Iran in East and Central Asia. Achieving the aims, approaches, evaluation process and criteria for classification of architectural heritage in other countries in the region is the main purpose of this study. The two main questions of this research are: 1-What policies and approaches have the countries of East and Central Asia used in the system of management of assets and classification of architectural heritage? 2-What is the level and process of decision-making in evaluating the classification of the architectural heritage of these countries? This research has a qualitative approach and the method used is descriptive-interpretive. Research data have been collected and organized through documentary studies and have been evaluated by interpreting and analyzing the content.
Identified Traces
Japan is a leader in the classification of heritage among the countries of the East Asian region, and the Republic of Korea has largely followed its policy. Tangible cultural in Japan are first divided into two categories, “national treasures” and “important cultural”, and then national treasures are divided into two groups: “architectural heritage” and “fine arts and crafts”; finally, architectural heritage is classified according to a “Designation System” at three levels: national, regional and local. South Korea first classifies its heritage into three levels: national, provincial, and local, and then categorizes each into different groups. Thus, South Korea’s cultural heritage is classified into five levels based on national, provincial, or local significance, period of construction, and location, with intangible, tangible, movable, and immovable heritage.
China lags behind other countries in the region in terms of classification due to many challenges such as the large number of assets, political conflicts, as well as rapid development. China’s architectural heritage is classified into three levels of protection, including national, provincial and local, and unclassified assets are listed and registered only to inform the Authorities of the location and type of the assets. Hong Kong, in a specific process and according to an administrative system, classifies architectural heritage into three levels, including: Grade 1: Buildings with outstanding features and competencies that must be maintained; Grade 2: Buildings with special qualifications that are protected selectively and on a priority basis; Grade 3: Buildings with relative competencies that will be desirable to protect and if conservation is not possible, other methods and tools can be substituted.
The policy of management and protection of architectural heritage in Turkey and Egypt emphasizes the implementation of laws with international standards and the promotion of world heritage sites as tourist destinations and the use of existing capacities such as local councils, endowments, municipalities and the private sector. In these countries, decisions on classification are made by interdisciplinary advisory committees at the regional and national levels. The Government of India considers classification to be a subset of the categories “economic”, “cultural” and “environmental” and considers this policy to be in the interest of society and the people. Indian architectural heritage is classified into three levels: One: Buildings of national or historical significance. Two: buildings of regional or local importance and Three: Important buildings for the urban landscape that evoke architectural, aesthetic or sociological features.
Conclusion
The process of architectural heritage conservation includes inclusive activities that the provision of management tools can greatly help to prioritize and facilitate actions by responsible Authorities and the community. Therefore, it would be useful to develop logical principles for classification of architectural heritage by reviewing the experiences of other countries. According to the research findings, achieve an appropriate mechanism to prioritize the level of conservation for the implementation of integrated policies in order to raise awareness of local communities and economic participation, respect the rights of private owners and facilitate future decisions, has been the main aims of classification. Architectural heritage classification in case countries is done with a Managerial- Conservative approach in a specific system. In this process, after comprehensive identification and listing, based on criteria of Cultural Significance, Historical and Architecture importance, Outstanding Values, Uniqueness, Authenticity and Integrity, Aesthetic features and at risk, by the advisory committee in the presence of government officials, experts and stakeholders, level of assets is evaluated and determined. According to the structure of laws and policies in East and Central Asia, architectural heritage works are classified into three levels: National, Provincial (state, city, and region) and Local (municipalities and councils).
Acknowledgment
The authors feel obliged to express their gratitude to the anonymous reviewers of the journal who graciously accepted the task and enriched the content of the article with their constructive suggestions.
Observation Contribution
Equally between authors.
Conflict of Interest
The authors, while adhering to publication ethics, explicitly declare the absence of any conflict of interest in this research.
Dr Yousef Moradi,
year 7, Issue 25 (12-2023)
year 7, Issue 25 (12-2023)
Abstract
Abstract
The Bisotun bridge was built across the Dinavar Ab River, flowing on the eastern outskirts of the present-day town of Bisotun. The construction of the bridge’s substructure was initiated in the late Sasanian period, but the program was abruptly terminated, as is the case with other Sasanian projects in Bisotun. Subsequently, the Ḥasanwayhids, a local Kurdish dynasty in western Iran, completed the construction of the bridge. High traffic and natural hazards such as floods and earthquakes have inflicted damage upon the bridge in subsequent periods, i.e., from the Saljuq era to the first Pahlavi period. Consequently, governments made considerable efforts to restore or reconstruct various parts of the bridge. Workshops were established at a short distance northeast of the bridge to provide construction materials for the restoration and reconstruction of the damaged parts. To the northeast of the bridge, there exists a low mound measuring 50 m in length and 40 m in width. The mound was excavated in 2002 under the direction of the present author, revealing four distinct archaeological strata. The earliest layer (I) includes a seasonal settlement from the Qajar period. Layer II contains a cemetery from the same period. Layer III encompasses several brick and lime kilns, dating back to the Ilkhanid and Qajar periods. Layer IV yielded parts of a stone-cutting workshop from the late Sasanian/ Ḥasanwayhid period. This article aims to provide the first comprehensive description of the findings within each archaeological stratum, using historical and descriptive-analytical research methods. We will also propose a chronological framework for the excavated materials based on archaeological evidence and thermoluminescence dating analysis. Furthermore, the article will delve into the production processes of brick and lime produced in the excavated kilns. Moreover, we will provide insights into the process by which the stone blocks were produced in the stone-cutting workshop.
Keywords: Bisotun Bridge, Stone Workshop, Brick, Lime, Kiln, Cemetery.
Introduction
The Bisotun Bridge is located on the eastern outskirts of the present-day town of Bisotun, on the “Great Khorasan” highway to Baghdad, spanning the Dinavar Ab River (Fig. 1). The bridge is 145 m long and consists of six spans. The bridge piers are constructed of well-dressed stone blocks, while the walls, buttresses, and vaults are made of bricks. Archaeological excavations and architectural studies have revealed that the bridge has been constructed, reconstructed, and repaired in eight distinct stages, occurring at different times ranging from the late Sasanian period to the first Pahlavi era.
On the northeast side of the bridge, there was a low-laying mound measuring 50 m in length and 40 m in width (Figs. 2–3). This mound was covered with a considerable amount of kiln slag, fragments of baked bricks in various sizes, and stone blocks. These findings indicated the presence of workshops related to the production of building materials for the initial construction and/or repair of the bridge. In 2002, the mound was partially excavated under the direction of the present author. The archaeological deposits of the mound had an approximate thickness of 3.50 m. The excavation was carried out with two objectives. First, to identify the potential workshops involved in the production of building materials used in the construction of the bridge. Second, to shed light on the processes by which the building materials were produced in these workshops.
This article aims to first provide a detailed description of the findings from each archaeological stratum, employing historical and descriptive-analytical research methods. Subsequently, by utilizing archaeological evidence and thermoluminescence dating analysis, we will determine the dates of the architectural structures under investigation. Furthermore, we will endeavor to explain the processes and techniques employed in the production of brick and lime production based on the layout and architectural characteristics of each kiln. Moreover, we will discuss the process by which finely cut stone blocks were produced in the stone-cutting workshop. We intend to address the following questions, drawing on historical documents and archaeological evidence:
1. During which period were the excavated workshops actively in operation?
2. What were the production processes of building materials in these workshops?
3. Can we establish a chronological framework for the excavated cemetery?
4. Are the graves associated with one religious group, or do different groups of graves represent diverse religious affiliations?
The site
During the excavation of the mound, a stone-cutting workshop from the late Sasanian or Hasanwayhid period was discovered. In this workshop, stone blocks for the construction of the bridge piers were skillfully dressed (Fig. 4). The workshop suffered damage due to the subsequent construction of brick and lime kilns (Figs. 5, 7, and 17). Nonethless, twelve cut stone blocks of varying sizes and shapes were found in the excavated area. Furthermore, the excavation revealed three kilns (Figs. 5-6) engaged in the production of bricks and lime.
Kiln 1
This kiln is oriented in a north-south direction, and only its furnace has survived. The furnace represents three construction phases. In Phase I, it had a rectangular plan with external dimensions of 7.50 m in length and 4.80 m in width (Figs. 7–8). The relatively modest size of the furnace indicates that it was likely not intended for extensive brick production but rather for the supply of bricks for the reconstruction and repair of the bridge during the Ilkhanid period. In Phase II, the furnace’s plan turned to a circular shape, with a diameter of 3.30 m and a height of 2.10 m (Figs. 7 and 16). In Phase III, another air flue was built upon the one from Phase II. During Phases II and III, this kiln was used for lime production. Originally functioned as a brick-manufacturing kiln during the Ilkhanid period, it was transformed into a lime kiln in the Qajar period.
Kiln 2
This kiln has an approximately circular plan (Figs. 17–18). The inner diameter of the kiln ranges from 2.50 to 2.60 m, while the remaining height of its walls stands at 3.30 m (Figs. 19–21). Within the kiln, there is a channel oriented in a north-south direction, allowing the inflow of air for the combustion of fire inside the kiln. The presence of substantial quantities of lime inside the kiln strongly suggests its use in the production of lime for the repair of bridge piers.
Kiln 3
This kiln has a circular plan with a varying inner diameter. The kiln’s dimensions include a diameter of 1.80 m from the floor up to a height of 55 cm, a diameter of 2.40 m from there to a height of 1.20 m, and a diameter of 2.70 m from that point to the highest part of the wall (Figs. 24–27). The channel on the floor of the kiln is designed to facilitate air circulation. Three additional channels, sharing similar characteristics, have been built on top of this primary channel. Similar to kiln 2, the presence of substantial quantities of lime inside the kiln indicates that it was used to produce lime for the repair of bridge piers.
Conclusion
The excavation of the mound has yielded four distinct archaeological strata. Layer I represents a seasonal nomadic settlement dating back to the Qajar period. Layer II consists of a graveyard from the Qajar period. Layer III contains three kilns used for brickmaking and lime production, which can be dated back to the Ilkhanid and Qajar periods. Layer IV reveals a stone-cutting workshop, likely dating back to the Sasanian or Ḥasanwayhid period. The proximity of these kilns and the stone-cutting workshop to the bridge indicates that these workshops were established nearby to facilitate the construction process and ensure a readily available supply of building materials.
The brick-manufacturing kiln discovered in the excavation is an extensive open kiln with fixed bricks and a stationary fire. It appears to lack an upper chamber or enclosed walls. In this kiln, the brick-making process involved stacking mud bricks on top of the kiln’s furnace to form cylindrical, square, or polygonal brick towers. These bricks were arranged with gaps between them to allow for the circulation of air, hot gases, and flames. Openings in the lower rows connected to the kiln’s fire vents, facilitating heat transfer. After the initial firing, the baked bricks were removed, and fresh bricks were placed for the next firing. The design and operation of this kiln closely resemble those from the Sasanian period, suggesting little change in brick production technology over time.
The lime kilns are of the pit type with a circular layout. These kilns relied on limestone and a fixed fire, resulting in uneven temperature distribution and variable lime quality. Often, stones remained either uncalcined or partially burned. Lime production involved two methods: arranging limestone around the kiln’s circumference, with heat generated in the central empty space, or stacking alternating layers of charcoal and limestone inside the kiln. The top of the kiln was sealed with mud mortar. These kilns were used during the Qajar period to produce lime for bridge pier repairs.
Within the stone-cutting workshop, stone blocks were meticulously shaped for use in constructing bridge piers. Initially, stone cutters extracted stones from the quarry and cut them into geometric shapes and approximate sizes. Subsequently, the blocks were transported to the workshop, where they underwent further cutting, shaping, and surface polishing. One block bears a stone-cutting mark on its smooth surface, indicating that these stone-cutting marks were made in the workshop.
Acknowledgments
I am indebted to the Iranian Centre for Archaeological Research (ICAR) for generously granting the excavation permits, and to the Bisotun World Heritage Base for its financial support, unfailing administrative cooperation, and logistical assistance.
I would also like to express my sincere appreciation to the following individuals for their invaluable contributions. Zeinab Valizadeh for proofreading the text; Hamed Rezae for producing the architectural plans and cross sections; Sara Mahbobi for redrawing and revising the plans and cross sections; Dariush Afkari for supplying the countor map of the site; and Elham Afkari for her photography of the coin and seal.
Conflict of Interest
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the Author(s).
The Bisotun bridge was built across the Dinavar Ab River, flowing on the eastern outskirts of the present-day town of Bisotun. The construction of the bridge’s substructure was initiated in the late Sasanian period, but the program was abruptly terminated, as is the case with other Sasanian projects in Bisotun. Subsequently, the Ḥasanwayhids, a local Kurdish dynasty in western Iran, completed the construction of the bridge. High traffic and natural hazards such as floods and earthquakes have inflicted damage upon the bridge in subsequent periods, i.e., from the Saljuq era to the first Pahlavi period. Consequently, governments made considerable efforts to restore or reconstruct various parts of the bridge. Workshops were established at a short distance northeast of the bridge to provide construction materials for the restoration and reconstruction of the damaged parts. To the northeast of the bridge, there exists a low mound measuring 50 m in length and 40 m in width. The mound was excavated in 2002 under the direction of the present author, revealing four distinct archaeological strata. The earliest layer (I) includes a seasonal settlement from the Qajar period. Layer II contains a cemetery from the same period. Layer III encompasses several brick and lime kilns, dating back to the Ilkhanid and Qajar periods. Layer IV yielded parts of a stone-cutting workshop from the late Sasanian/ Ḥasanwayhid period. This article aims to provide the first comprehensive description of the findings within each archaeological stratum, using historical and descriptive-analytical research methods. We will also propose a chronological framework for the excavated materials based on archaeological evidence and thermoluminescence dating analysis. Furthermore, the article will delve into the production processes of brick and lime produced in the excavated kilns. Moreover, we will provide insights into the process by which the stone blocks were produced in the stone-cutting workshop.
Keywords: Bisotun Bridge, Stone Workshop, Brick, Lime, Kiln, Cemetery.
Introduction
The Bisotun Bridge is located on the eastern outskirts of the present-day town of Bisotun, on the “Great Khorasan” highway to Baghdad, spanning the Dinavar Ab River (Fig. 1). The bridge is 145 m long and consists of six spans. The bridge piers are constructed of well-dressed stone blocks, while the walls, buttresses, and vaults are made of bricks. Archaeological excavations and architectural studies have revealed that the bridge has been constructed, reconstructed, and repaired in eight distinct stages, occurring at different times ranging from the late Sasanian period to the first Pahlavi era.
On the northeast side of the bridge, there was a low-laying mound measuring 50 m in length and 40 m in width (Figs. 2–3). This mound was covered with a considerable amount of kiln slag, fragments of baked bricks in various sizes, and stone blocks. These findings indicated the presence of workshops related to the production of building materials for the initial construction and/or repair of the bridge. In 2002, the mound was partially excavated under the direction of the present author. The archaeological deposits of the mound had an approximate thickness of 3.50 m. The excavation was carried out with two objectives. First, to identify the potential workshops involved in the production of building materials used in the construction of the bridge. Second, to shed light on the processes by which the building materials were produced in these workshops.
This article aims to first provide a detailed description of the findings from each archaeological stratum, employing historical and descriptive-analytical research methods. Subsequently, by utilizing archaeological evidence and thermoluminescence dating analysis, we will determine the dates of the architectural structures under investigation. Furthermore, we will endeavor to explain the processes and techniques employed in the production of brick and lime production based on the layout and architectural characteristics of each kiln. Moreover, we will discuss the process by which finely cut stone blocks were produced in the stone-cutting workshop. We intend to address the following questions, drawing on historical documents and archaeological evidence:
1. During which period were the excavated workshops actively in operation?
2. What were the production processes of building materials in these workshops?
3. Can we establish a chronological framework for the excavated cemetery?
4. Are the graves associated with one religious group, or do different groups of graves represent diverse religious affiliations?
The site
During the excavation of the mound, a stone-cutting workshop from the late Sasanian or Hasanwayhid period was discovered. In this workshop, stone blocks for the construction of the bridge piers were skillfully dressed (Fig. 4). The workshop suffered damage due to the subsequent construction of brick and lime kilns (Figs. 5, 7, and 17). Nonethless, twelve cut stone blocks of varying sizes and shapes were found in the excavated area. Furthermore, the excavation revealed three kilns (Figs. 5-6) engaged in the production of bricks and lime.
Kiln 1
This kiln is oriented in a north-south direction, and only its furnace has survived. The furnace represents three construction phases. In Phase I, it had a rectangular plan with external dimensions of 7.50 m in length and 4.80 m in width (Figs. 7–8). The relatively modest size of the furnace indicates that it was likely not intended for extensive brick production but rather for the supply of bricks for the reconstruction and repair of the bridge during the Ilkhanid period. In Phase II, the furnace’s plan turned to a circular shape, with a diameter of 3.30 m and a height of 2.10 m (Figs. 7 and 16). In Phase III, another air flue was built upon the one from Phase II. During Phases II and III, this kiln was used for lime production. Originally functioned as a brick-manufacturing kiln during the Ilkhanid period, it was transformed into a lime kiln in the Qajar period.
Kiln 2
This kiln has an approximately circular plan (Figs. 17–18). The inner diameter of the kiln ranges from 2.50 to 2.60 m, while the remaining height of its walls stands at 3.30 m (Figs. 19–21). Within the kiln, there is a channel oriented in a north-south direction, allowing the inflow of air for the combustion of fire inside the kiln. The presence of substantial quantities of lime inside the kiln strongly suggests its use in the production of lime for the repair of bridge piers.
Kiln 3
This kiln has a circular plan with a varying inner diameter. The kiln’s dimensions include a diameter of 1.80 m from the floor up to a height of 55 cm, a diameter of 2.40 m from there to a height of 1.20 m, and a diameter of 2.70 m from that point to the highest part of the wall (Figs. 24–27). The channel on the floor of the kiln is designed to facilitate air circulation. Three additional channels, sharing similar characteristics, have been built on top of this primary channel. Similar to kiln 2, the presence of substantial quantities of lime inside the kiln indicates that it was used to produce lime for the repair of bridge piers.
Conclusion
The excavation of the mound has yielded four distinct archaeological strata. Layer I represents a seasonal nomadic settlement dating back to the Qajar period. Layer II consists of a graveyard from the Qajar period. Layer III contains three kilns used for brickmaking and lime production, which can be dated back to the Ilkhanid and Qajar periods. Layer IV reveals a stone-cutting workshop, likely dating back to the Sasanian or Ḥasanwayhid period. The proximity of these kilns and the stone-cutting workshop to the bridge indicates that these workshops were established nearby to facilitate the construction process and ensure a readily available supply of building materials.
The brick-manufacturing kiln discovered in the excavation is an extensive open kiln with fixed bricks and a stationary fire. It appears to lack an upper chamber or enclosed walls. In this kiln, the brick-making process involved stacking mud bricks on top of the kiln’s furnace to form cylindrical, square, or polygonal brick towers. These bricks were arranged with gaps between them to allow for the circulation of air, hot gases, and flames. Openings in the lower rows connected to the kiln’s fire vents, facilitating heat transfer. After the initial firing, the baked bricks were removed, and fresh bricks were placed for the next firing. The design and operation of this kiln closely resemble those from the Sasanian period, suggesting little change in brick production technology over time.
The lime kilns are of the pit type with a circular layout. These kilns relied on limestone and a fixed fire, resulting in uneven temperature distribution and variable lime quality. Often, stones remained either uncalcined or partially burned. Lime production involved two methods: arranging limestone around the kiln’s circumference, with heat generated in the central empty space, or stacking alternating layers of charcoal and limestone inside the kiln. The top of the kiln was sealed with mud mortar. These kilns were used during the Qajar period to produce lime for bridge pier repairs.
Within the stone-cutting workshop, stone blocks were meticulously shaped for use in constructing bridge piers. Initially, stone cutters extracted stones from the quarry and cut them into geometric shapes and approximate sizes. Subsequently, the blocks were transported to the workshop, where they underwent further cutting, shaping, and surface polishing. One block bears a stone-cutting mark on its smooth surface, indicating that these stone-cutting marks were made in the workshop.
Acknowledgments
I am indebted to the Iranian Centre for Archaeological Research (ICAR) for generously granting the excavation permits, and to the Bisotun World Heritage Base for its financial support, unfailing administrative cooperation, and logistical assistance.
I would also like to express my sincere appreciation to the following individuals for their invaluable contributions. Zeinab Valizadeh for proofreading the text; Hamed Rezae for producing the architectural plans and cross sections; Sara Mahbobi for redrawing and revising the plans and cross sections; Dariush Afkari for supplying the countor map of the site; and Elham Afkari for her photography of the coin and seal.
Conflict of Interest
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the Author(s).
Hasan Moradi, Meisam Nikzad,
year 7, Issue 26 (2-2024)
year 7, Issue 26 (2-2024)
Abstract
Abstract
Some forms of water resources management and irrigation are necessary for forming permanent human habitats and harvesting prosperous agricultural products in the warm and arid regions of West Asia and the Mediterranean, with annual precipitation of less than 200 mm, which usually has no permanent rivers. The survival and success of societies in warm and arid regions rely on complex environmental management systems, especially water resource management and a flexible and compatible lifestyle. Due to the lack of permanent water resources and insufficient precipitation, communities in arid and semi-arid areas have built structures such as qanats, canals, dams, and pools to manage and exploit water resources. These structures follow the geographical, geological, and topographical conditions for water resources exploitation. The Neyriz Plain in the east of Fars province is one of the arid regions with limited annual rainfall. It does not have a permanent river and uses a system to exploit water resources, in which aquifers (underground water sources) play a fundamental role. According to the region’s ecosystem and the results of the archeological survey of the area, it was determined that human society development, from the past to pre-modern, in this plain has depended on the development and management of water-related systems, especially qanats. This research seeks to find the factors affecting the water resource exploitation pattern as the most critical variable affecting the livelihood and settlement pattern in the Neyriz Plain. Furthermore, the evidence related to water resource management has been investigated according to the geological and topography conditions of the region. The results show a direct relationship between the livelihood and the management pattern of water resources, vastly influencing the distribution and type of settlements (nomadic or sedentary).
Keywords: Neyriz Plain, Arid Regions, Aquifer, Geology, Qanat.
Introduction
Neyriz Plain is located about 200 km east of Shiraz, between Fars and Kerman provinces. This sedimentary plain, with an area of about 240 square kilometers, is relatively flat and has a gentle slope from east to west. The highest elevation of the plain is 1615 meters above sea level in the east of the plain, and the lowest is 1557 meters above sea level, near Bakhtegan Lake in the west. Neyriz Plain is surrounded by north, east, and south heights and reaches Bakhtegan Lake from the west. Bakhtegan Lake has salty water, and its infiltration into the underground aquifers has caused the salinity of its resources (Afrasiabi and Sedghi ASL, 2015: 7). Neyriz Plain in the east of Fars province was archaeologically studied in an opportunity available in 2016. During this survey, special attention was paid to the traditional water resource management structures, including qanats, distributors, pools, sites, and castle villages, along with the registration of ancient sites.
This research investigated the historical importance of water in forming and developing settlements, focusing on the traditional methods of managing and exploiting water resources in dry areas for agricultural purposes, how to exploit water resources, and the factors affecting it in Neyriz Plain. According to the archaeological evidence, these methods seem to have made settlement possible in the Neyriz Plain since at least the Achaemenid or post-Achaemenid period (Moradi et al. 2017: 338).
The research method in this article is analytical-descriptive. During the field survey, the structures related to managing and exploiting water resources were identified and recorded in the first step. Due to the relatively large length of the qanat system, satellite images were used to understand the general situation and reconstruct the destroyed parts. For this purpose, the aerial photos of 1956 and 1968 of the mapping organization of Neyriz Plain were georeferenced. The information about the route of qanats, pools, and their destroyed parts was completed based on them. In addition, to complete the information obtained from the field studies, interviews were conducted with local people with knowledge in this field.
The primary approach of this research was to record and accurately describe the documents related to the traditional management of water resources in the Neyriz Plain and to understand the relationship between them and the establishments identified in the survey. For better analysis and comprehension, the information was integrated using the Geographical Information System (GIS) along with the location information of the identified settlement areas.
Discussion
Without a permanent river, the Neyriz Plain depends on springs and qanats to provide water sources for its settlements in the pre-modern era. The springs in the northern and southern highlands of Neyriz Plain generally have limited water supply and often do not reach the plain’s level. For productivity, structures, including streams and pools, are built along their path to direct the water to the fields. Streams and pools are made of rubble, and plaster or mortar is used as a coating. The old pool of Lai-Hana and the Haji-Abad water supply system are located in the southern highlands, and the Deh-Fazel water supply system is located in the northern highlands of Neyriz Plain. These are among the facilities for controlling, directing, and consuming water from Neyriz Plain springs.
Qanats with more water than springs can be seen in almost all parts of the plain, and generally, they can be classified into three groups: qanats of mountain, semi-mountain, and plain. Mountainous and semi-mountainous qanats have limited water supply and are exploited by building pools and streams. The qanats of Neyriz Plain with more water are grouped into two groups. The first group is not far from the most crucial alluvial fan of the Neyriz Plain in the mouth of Hourgan.
The aquifer of this group is located on the northern slope of the Tarbour Formation, which strengthens underground resources with the presence of the main Zagros Fault. The second group of qanats reached the fields west of Neyriz Plain with a length of 5-15 km by exploiting the aquifers formed in the slopes of the north and south of the plain and west of Neyriz City. Shadabakht and Khobar qanats (Figure 12), with a length of less than five kilometers, are in this group and considered the most water-rich Qanats in the Neyriz plain. They reach the neighborhoods of Neyriz City and the Qal-e Mohammad Khan and Qal-e Haj-Hossein by irrigating the gardens and fields (ّFigure 11). There are four mills on the route of Shadabakht Qanat and one mill on the way of Khabar Qanat, which is located before the distributor of these two qanats.
After the distributor, Shadabakht Qanat through six streams, and Khobar Qanat through five streams, direct water to the gardens and fields and supplies drinking water to three important neighborhoods of Neyriz City (Bazar, Kouche Bala (Sadat) and Chenarshahi). In some places where the course of the streams meets the canals, a trap has been built for water to pass, which transfers the water to the other side of the canal. Also, other works, such as a bathhouse and reservoir (pond), have been identified in Neyriz neighborhoods, which show a great connection with the route of the qanat stream (Moradi, 2016: 323-337).
Conclusion
Effective water resource management and utilization are crucial for agricultural success in arid and semi-arid regions of Western Asia and the Mediterranean.
Traditional methods of water management in these regions provide valuable insights into the relationship between humans and the environment over the long term. This research focuses on the Neyriz Plain in Fars Province, serving as a case study to explore the strategies employed in harnessing water resources in arid landscapes.
The Neyriz Plain heavily relies on aquifers as fundamental water sources. The ecological conditions and archaeological findings of the region indicate that the historical development and settlement patterns of human communities have been closely tied to the development and management of traditional water systems, particularly Qanats. This research aims to identify the factors influencing the pattern of water utilization, which plays a vital role in shaping the way of life and settlement patterns in the Neyriz Plain.
The geological characteristics of the area significantly influence the water resources of the Neyriz Plain. The Tarbur limestone formation in the eastern mountains serves as a reliable underground water source, nourishing the most abundant and flourishing qanats in the city of Neyriz, the largest settlement center in the plain. Other geological units, such as the Sanandaj-Sirjan and Jahrom formations, form limited aquifers in the foothills and the plain, which require the construction of canals and reservoirs to utilize these resources effectively.
By examining the traditional water management practices in the Neyriz Plain, this research offers valuable insights into sustainable water utilization in arid landscapes. The findings have implications for resource management and can inform similar regions facing water scarcity challenges. Understanding the historical context and traditional methods of harnessing water resources can contribute to more effective and sustainable water management practices in arid and semi-arid environments.
Some forms of water resources management and irrigation are necessary for forming permanent human habitats and harvesting prosperous agricultural products in the warm and arid regions of West Asia and the Mediterranean, with annual precipitation of less than 200 mm, which usually has no permanent rivers. The survival and success of societies in warm and arid regions rely on complex environmental management systems, especially water resource management and a flexible and compatible lifestyle. Due to the lack of permanent water resources and insufficient precipitation, communities in arid and semi-arid areas have built structures such as qanats, canals, dams, and pools to manage and exploit water resources. These structures follow the geographical, geological, and topographical conditions for water resources exploitation. The Neyriz Plain in the east of Fars province is one of the arid regions with limited annual rainfall. It does not have a permanent river and uses a system to exploit water resources, in which aquifers (underground water sources) play a fundamental role. According to the region’s ecosystem and the results of the archeological survey of the area, it was determined that human society development, from the past to pre-modern, in this plain has depended on the development and management of water-related systems, especially qanats. This research seeks to find the factors affecting the water resource exploitation pattern as the most critical variable affecting the livelihood and settlement pattern in the Neyriz Plain. Furthermore, the evidence related to water resource management has been investigated according to the geological and topography conditions of the region. The results show a direct relationship between the livelihood and the management pattern of water resources, vastly influencing the distribution and type of settlements (nomadic or sedentary).
Keywords: Neyriz Plain, Arid Regions, Aquifer, Geology, Qanat.
Introduction
Neyriz Plain is located about 200 km east of Shiraz, between Fars and Kerman provinces. This sedimentary plain, with an area of about 240 square kilometers, is relatively flat and has a gentle slope from east to west. The highest elevation of the plain is 1615 meters above sea level in the east of the plain, and the lowest is 1557 meters above sea level, near Bakhtegan Lake in the west. Neyriz Plain is surrounded by north, east, and south heights and reaches Bakhtegan Lake from the west. Bakhtegan Lake has salty water, and its infiltration into the underground aquifers has caused the salinity of its resources (Afrasiabi and Sedghi ASL, 2015: 7). Neyriz Plain in the east of Fars province was archaeologically studied in an opportunity available in 2016. During this survey, special attention was paid to the traditional water resource management structures, including qanats, distributors, pools, sites, and castle villages, along with the registration of ancient sites.
This research investigated the historical importance of water in forming and developing settlements, focusing on the traditional methods of managing and exploiting water resources in dry areas for agricultural purposes, how to exploit water resources, and the factors affecting it in Neyriz Plain. According to the archaeological evidence, these methods seem to have made settlement possible in the Neyriz Plain since at least the Achaemenid or post-Achaemenid period (Moradi et al. 2017: 338).
The research method in this article is analytical-descriptive. During the field survey, the structures related to managing and exploiting water resources were identified and recorded in the first step. Due to the relatively large length of the qanat system, satellite images were used to understand the general situation and reconstruct the destroyed parts. For this purpose, the aerial photos of 1956 and 1968 of the mapping organization of Neyriz Plain were georeferenced. The information about the route of qanats, pools, and their destroyed parts was completed based on them. In addition, to complete the information obtained from the field studies, interviews were conducted with local people with knowledge in this field.
The primary approach of this research was to record and accurately describe the documents related to the traditional management of water resources in the Neyriz Plain and to understand the relationship between them and the establishments identified in the survey. For better analysis and comprehension, the information was integrated using the Geographical Information System (GIS) along with the location information of the identified settlement areas.
Discussion
Without a permanent river, the Neyriz Plain depends on springs and qanats to provide water sources for its settlements in the pre-modern era. The springs in the northern and southern highlands of Neyriz Plain generally have limited water supply and often do not reach the plain’s level. For productivity, structures, including streams and pools, are built along their path to direct the water to the fields. Streams and pools are made of rubble, and plaster or mortar is used as a coating. The old pool of Lai-Hana and the Haji-Abad water supply system are located in the southern highlands, and the Deh-Fazel water supply system is located in the northern highlands of Neyriz Plain. These are among the facilities for controlling, directing, and consuming water from Neyriz Plain springs.
Qanats with more water than springs can be seen in almost all parts of the plain, and generally, they can be classified into three groups: qanats of mountain, semi-mountain, and plain. Mountainous and semi-mountainous qanats have limited water supply and are exploited by building pools and streams. The qanats of Neyriz Plain with more water are grouped into two groups. The first group is not far from the most crucial alluvial fan of the Neyriz Plain in the mouth of Hourgan.
The aquifer of this group is located on the northern slope of the Tarbour Formation, which strengthens underground resources with the presence of the main Zagros Fault. The second group of qanats reached the fields west of Neyriz Plain with a length of 5-15 km by exploiting the aquifers formed in the slopes of the north and south of the plain and west of Neyriz City. Shadabakht and Khobar qanats (Figure 12), with a length of less than five kilometers, are in this group and considered the most water-rich Qanats in the Neyriz plain. They reach the neighborhoods of Neyriz City and the Qal-e Mohammad Khan and Qal-e Haj-Hossein by irrigating the gardens and fields (ّFigure 11). There are four mills on the route of Shadabakht Qanat and one mill on the way of Khabar Qanat, which is located before the distributor of these two qanats.
After the distributor, Shadabakht Qanat through six streams, and Khobar Qanat through five streams, direct water to the gardens and fields and supplies drinking water to three important neighborhoods of Neyriz City (Bazar, Kouche Bala (Sadat) and Chenarshahi). In some places where the course of the streams meets the canals, a trap has been built for water to pass, which transfers the water to the other side of the canal. Also, other works, such as a bathhouse and reservoir (pond), have been identified in Neyriz neighborhoods, which show a great connection with the route of the qanat stream (Moradi, 2016: 323-337).
Conclusion
Effective water resource management and utilization are crucial for agricultural success in arid and semi-arid regions of Western Asia and the Mediterranean.
Traditional methods of water management in these regions provide valuable insights into the relationship between humans and the environment over the long term. This research focuses on the Neyriz Plain in Fars Province, serving as a case study to explore the strategies employed in harnessing water resources in arid landscapes.
The Neyriz Plain heavily relies on aquifers as fundamental water sources. The ecological conditions and archaeological findings of the region indicate that the historical development and settlement patterns of human communities have been closely tied to the development and management of traditional water systems, particularly Qanats. This research aims to identify the factors influencing the pattern of water utilization, which plays a vital role in shaping the way of life and settlement patterns in the Neyriz Plain.
The geological characteristics of the area significantly influence the water resources of the Neyriz Plain. The Tarbur limestone formation in the eastern mountains serves as a reliable underground water source, nourishing the most abundant and flourishing qanats in the city of Neyriz, the largest settlement center in the plain. Other geological units, such as the Sanandaj-Sirjan and Jahrom formations, form limited aquifers in the foothills and the plain, which require the construction of canals and reservoirs to utilize these resources effectively.
By examining the traditional water management practices in the Neyriz Plain, this research offers valuable insights into sustainable water utilization in arid landscapes. The findings have implications for resource management and can inform similar regions facing water scarcity challenges. Understanding the historical context and traditional methods of harnessing water resources can contribute to more effective and sustainable water management practices in arid and semi-arid environments.
Haasan Fazli Nesheli, Mojtaba Safari, Judith Thomalsky, Mina Madihy, Narjes Heydari, Narjes Nhan Fini, Ghasem Moradi, Yousef Fzeli Nashli, Zahra Aghajan Nasb,
year 8, Issue 29 (12-2024)
year 8, Issue 29 (12-2024)
Abstract
Abstract
The southeastern Caspian Sea, which archaeologists call the coastal zone, like many other areas of the Fertile Crescent, experienced significant changes in the structure of human societies on the cusp of the Neolithic Revolution in the early Holocene. Although archaeologists have been unable to establish a link between the end of the Mesolithic and the beginning of the Neolithic in the region, based on the current information, we now know that hunter-gatherers arrived in the area ca. 15,000 years ago. This marked one of the most important cultural events in human societies on the cusp of sedentism. One of the caves that has been studied as evidence of the presence of humans during the Mesolithic period is Kamarband (“Belt”) Cave. It is considered one of Iran’s most beautiful caves, attracting hunter-gatherer groups as settlers around 14,300 years ago. The cave was excavated by Carleton Coon between 1949 and 1951, and the description of his excavations during that time have fascinated readers for decades. Nevertheless, while Coon’s excavations at Kamarband Cave shed new light on the cultural epochs of the cave dwellers, they led to numerous ambiguities in understanding the chronological sequence of societies that existed in this cave for a variety of reasons. Over the past 70 years, archaeologists have not been able to accurately evaluate the cultural and social evolution of cave-dwelling human societies due to confusion in Coon’s excavation data. Therefore, a team of Iranian archaeologists re-excavated in limited and untouched parts of Kamarband Cave in 2021, managing to resolve some of the ambiguities in Coon’s chronology. Apart from the archaeological values of Kamarband Cave, recent excavations by the archaeological team have collected other valuable data, which will be addressed in other articles. This article primarily encompasses a chronological assessment of Kamarband Cave based on new data.
Keywords: Kamarband Cave, Mesolithic, Southeast of the Caspian Sea, Mazandaran Province, Hunters and Gatherers.
Introduction
Homo sapiens appeared on the planet about 300 thousand years ago, and except in the time range between 20,000 and 10,000 years ago, the range of remarkable changes among hunter-gatherer societies was not so noticeable and effective that it could cause fundamental changes in the dimensions (Watkins 2024, Flannery and Marcus 2012). The important point is that the cognitive capacities of Homo sapiens occurred around 40,000 to 50,000 years ago, called a revolution of behavioral modernity (Henshilwood and Marean 2003, Powel et al., 2009). However, archaeologists consider the evidence of this behavioral change in humans to be related to a period 15 thousand years ago. Caves such as the Kamarband, Hotu, Komishan and Ali Tepe, and the Mesolithic period significantly differ significantly from their predecessors. The results of archeological studies show that in the north of Iran around 14300 years ago, in the period from which terms such as Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic, a different and transformed society emerged. Scattered research shows the presence of humans throughout Mazandaran province from the Middle Paleolithic period onwards (Ramazanpour and Moradian, 2022). However, the basic question here is that in the southeast of the Caspian Sea, what were the characteristics of the transformative changes on the verge of the Neolithic? Apart from their chronological values, we need to know to what extent northern Iran sites excavated in recent years effectively understand the range of human developments in the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Investigating the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods can help us understand each society’s ideological and ritual concepts in the transition from the period of hunting and food gathering to the period of agriculture.
The Mesolithic period in the southeast of the Caspian Sea has been well-known for a long time due to the excavation of Hotu and Kamarband caves in 1949-1951 by Carleton Coon (Coon, 1951; 1957). Coon’s investigations and excavations in the plateau and north of Iran became a turning point in the recognition of an important period of human societies living in caves. Following that, a new wave of research began throughout this area. Despite the great fame of these two caves, unfortunately, there was no reliable information about this period, and the only reliable information about the Mesolithic period in the southeast of the Caspian Sea was related to the excavation of Ali Tepe Cave by McBurney and Komishan Cave by Vahdati Nasab. However, these communities’ social and economic status needs to be clarified (McBurney 1968, Vahdati Nasab 2021).
However, these excavations could not answer the questions of this period in the region; for this reason, in the winter of 2021, to review the stratification of the cultural deposits of the Kamarband and to investigate the resilience of humans with the environment from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic period; It was excavated for 40 days by a team from University of Tehran. Before the revision excavation, it seems the Neolithic context of Kamarband was destroyed, and our team only recorded layers of the Mesolithic period. This article describes the results of the 2021 excavation of the Mesolithic stratigraphy of Kamarband.
Kamarband Cave
Kamarband cave is located about 8 km west of Behshahr city and 7 km south of the Caspian Sea at a height of 36.40 meters above sea level. This Cave was first excavated in 1949 and 1951 by Coon. Coon started three trenches in this Cave, including Trench A, B and C. He identified 31 layers in Trench A (Fig. 4). Coon divides the Kamarband sequence into four cultural horizons based on the 28 layers from Trench A from top to bottom: Horizon 1: This period includes layers 1 and 2, consisting of mixed accumulation of Neolithic remains along with the Iron Age, the Islamic period, and the remnants of contemporary periods. Horizon 2: This period, considered the true Neolithic horizon, includes layers 3-10 and is divided into two parts, 2a and 2b. Section 2a includes layers 3 to 7, including pottery and bone remains of domesticated animals. Horizon 3: Upper Mesolithic period includes layers 11-17. Horizon 4: Early Mesolithic includes layers 21 to 28, the oldest phase identified in this Cave.
Kamarband Cave was re-excavated in 2021, and the team opened two trenches (D-E). In Trench D (2.20×3 M), the team recorded 28 contexts. After we removed all the rubbished materials from the Carleton Coon excavation of 1940, very small parts of the southern wall were untouched, which was very significant for stratigraphy. Context 1 contains the surface layer of the cave, and Context 2 contains the remains of the Coon`s excavation. Contexts 11, 12, 13, 14, 27, and 28 contain fireplace structures. Among the cultural remains in this trench, the team found remarkable plant remains such as seeds (recorded from fireplace structure), fossils, shells, snails, and stone artifacts. Trench E (65×220 M) after cleaning the Coon’s excavation, we reached the rocky bed of the cave, which allowed us to have a very good view of Trench E to control the section and stratigraphy. This trench is 65 x 220 cm. Context 1 is the surface layer, and contexts 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,12,15,16,22,23,24,25,26,27,34, and 35 are fireplaces structures. Among these contexts, one of the special findings is the existence of many plant seeds. Contexts 13, 17, 18, 19, 28, 29, and 30 are settlement layers. Contexts 14 and 33 are rubble layers. Context 36 starts from -190 cm to -352 cm on the bedrock of the Kamarband cave and has no cultural finds. Context 37 is the bedrock. The cultural materials of this trench include stone artifacts, chipped stones, plant remains, animal remains, shells, snails, and fossils. Among the special 2021 excavations, we found the Carnivora /wolf teeth in many southeastern Caspian Sea caves, indicating a common shared ideology of Mesolithic people. Due to the destruction of the Neolithic layers in the cave, no evidence of pottery was found during the excavation. Only from Context 2, Trench D, which contained the remains of the Coon`s excavation, were pottery pieces obtained.
Regarding the chronology of Kamarband Cave, Libby from the University of Chicago conducted the first C14 tests of Kamarband Cave on eight charred bone samples from the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Elizabeth Ralph studied the C14 results of the second season of the Belt Survey (Libby 1951, 1955). However, these results were problematic, so Gregg and Thornton have calibrated past radiocarbon results in recent years (Gregg and Thornton 2012).
Seven charcoal samples from the Trench E 2021 excavation were tested for absolute dating. The first sample of Context 2 (the uppermost layer) is related to the 11810 ± 60 BC period (Fig. 21). The second sample from context 10 shows the date 12030 ± 60 BC. The third sample is from context 16, showing 12010 ± 60 BC. The fourth sample is from context 13 and shows the date of 12150 ± 60 BC. The fifth sample from context 23 shows the date 12210 ± 60 BC, and a sample from context 29 shows the date 12200 ± 60. The last sample is the lowest space of fire preparation from a depth of 180 cm and shows a date of 12270 ± 60. The results of our studies indicate only the Mesolithic occupation of the Cave, while there is a short gap between the two trenches are visible, and it seems the Cave covered by pale soil/Loss. However, Coon’s report and his section indicate such a short cultural gap as well. It seems the Cave was abandoned much earlier before Younger Dryas and after a long interval before the Pottery Neolithic period was occupied again. During the Mesolithic period, the Kamarband Cave was highly used for daily activities, specifically for the production of stone tools. During the excavation of 2021, around 6736 stone tools were found in the two small trenches, while in the Hotu excavation 2020, less than 2000 stone tools from 10meter cultural layers were recorded, which indicates the different functions of the two Caves (Jayez et al., in press).
Conclusion
According to the past and recent excavations of Hotu, Kamarband, and Komishani Tepe, we still see the chronological gap from the Mesolithic into the Early Neolithic period in the southeastern Caspian Sea shoreline. The emergence of the Modern Mind, the modern behavior revolution, and the formation of symbols and symbolic behavior are the main characteristics of the Mesolithic people of the Caspian Sea. The advances of warmer climate during the Bolling- Allerod period from 18,000 to 12,000 years ago caused the consumption of different resources and the subsistence strategy of the Caspian Sea cave people. From the 2021 excavation of Kamarband, we have recorded remarkable seed remains plus stone implements to support the theory of a new group evolving toward pre-agricultural management in one of Iran’s few regions of coastal societies.
The southeastern Caspian Sea, which archaeologists call the coastal zone, like many other areas of the Fertile Crescent, experienced significant changes in the structure of human societies on the cusp of the Neolithic Revolution in the early Holocene. Although archaeologists have been unable to establish a link between the end of the Mesolithic and the beginning of the Neolithic in the region, based on the current information, we now know that hunter-gatherers arrived in the area ca. 15,000 years ago. This marked one of the most important cultural events in human societies on the cusp of sedentism. One of the caves that has been studied as evidence of the presence of humans during the Mesolithic period is Kamarband (“Belt”) Cave. It is considered one of Iran’s most beautiful caves, attracting hunter-gatherer groups as settlers around 14,300 years ago. The cave was excavated by Carleton Coon between 1949 and 1951, and the description of his excavations during that time have fascinated readers for decades. Nevertheless, while Coon’s excavations at Kamarband Cave shed new light on the cultural epochs of the cave dwellers, they led to numerous ambiguities in understanding the chronological sequence of societies that existed in this cave for a variety of reasons. Over the past 70 years, archaeologists have not been able to accurately evaluate the cultural and social evolution of cave-dwelling human societies due to confusion in Coon’s excavation data. Therefore, a team of Iranian archaeologists re-excavated in limited and untouched parts of Kamarband Cave in 2021, managing to resolve some of the ambiguities in Coon’s chronology. Apart from the archaeological values of Kamarband Cave, recent excavations by the archaeological team have collected other valuable data, which will be addressed in other articles. This article primarily encompasses a chronological assessment of Kamarband Cave based on new data.
Keywords: Kamarband Cave, Mesolithic, Southeast of the Caspian Sea, Mazandaran Province, Hunters and Gatherers.
Introduction
Homo sapiens appeared on the planet about 300 thousand years ago, and except in the time range between 20,000 and 10,000 years ago, the range of remarkable changes among hunter-gatherer societies was not so noticeable and effective that it could cause fundamental changes in the dimensions (Watkins 2024, Flannery and Marcus 2012). The important point is that the cognitive capacities of Homo sapiens occurred around 40,000 to 50,000 years ago, called a revolution of behavioral modernity (Henshilwood and Marean 2003, Powel et al., 2009). However, archaeologists consider the evidence of this behavioral change in humans to be related to a period 15 thousand years ago. Caves such as the Kamarband, Hotu, Komishan and Ali Tepe, and the Mesolithic period significantly differ significantly from their predecessors. The results of archeological studies show that in the north of Iran around 14300 years ago, in the period from which terms such as Epipaleolithic or Mesolithic, a different and transformed society emerged. Scattered research shows the presence of humans throughout Mazandaran province from the Middle Paleolithic period onwards (Ramazanpour and Moradian, 2022). However, the basic question here is that in the southeast of the Caspian Sea, what were the characteristics of the transformative changes on the verge of the Neolithic? Apart from their chronological values, we need to know to what extent northern Iran sites excavated in recent years effectively understand the range of human developments in the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Investigating the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods can help us understand each society’s ideological and ritual concepts in the transition from the period of hunting and food gathering to the period of agriculture.
The Mesolithic period in the southeast of the Caspian Sea has been well-known for a long time due to the excavation of Hotu and Kamarband caves in 1949-1951 by Carleton Coon (Coon, 1951; 1957). Coon’s investigations and excavations in the plateau and north of Iran became a turning point in the recognition of an important period of human societies living in caves. Following that, a new wave of research began throughout this area. Despite the great fame of these two caves, unfortunately, there was no reliable information about this period, and the only reliable information about the Mesolithic period in the southeast of the Caspian Sea was related to the excavation of Ali Tepe Cave by McBurney and Komishan Cave by Vahdati Nasab. However, these communities’ social and economic status needs to be clarified (McBurney 1968, Vahdati Nasab 2021).
However, these excavations could not answer the questions of this period in the region; for this reason, in the winter of 2021, to review the stratification of the cultural deposits of the Kamarband and to investigate the resilience of humans with the environment from the Mesolithic to the Neolithic period; It was excavated for 40 days by a team from University of Tehran. Before the revision excavation, it seems the Neolithic context of Kamarband was destroyed, and our team only recorded layers of the Mesolithic period. This article describes the results of the 2021 excavation of the Mesolithic stratigraphy of Kamarband.
Kamarband Cave
Kamarband cave is located about 8 km west of Behshahr city and 7 km south of the Caspian Sea at a height of 36.40 meters above sea level. This Cave was first excavated in 1949 and 1951 by Coon. Coon started three trenches in this Cave, including Trench A, B and C. He identified 31 layers in Trench A (Fig. 4). Coon divides the Kamarband sequence into four cultural horizons based on the 28 layers from Trench A from top to bottom: Horizon 1: This period includes layers 1 and 2, consisting of mixed accumulation of Neolithic remains along with the Iron Age, the Islamic period, and the remnants of contemporary periods. Horizon 2: This period, considered the true Neolithic horizon, includes layers 3-10 and is divided into two parts, 2a and 2b. Section 2a includes layers 3 to 7, including pottery and bone remains of domesticated animals. Horizon 3: Upper Mesolithic period includes layers 11-17. Horizon 4: Early Mesolithic includes layers 21 to 28, the oldest phase identified in this Cave.
Kamarband Cave was re-excavated in 2021, and the team opened two trenches (D-E). In Trench D (2.20×3 M), the team recorded 28 contexts. After we removed all the rubbished materials from the Carleton Coon excavation of 1940, very small parts of the southern wall were untouched, which was very significant for stratigraphy. Context 1 contains the surface layer of the cave, and Context 2 contains the remains of the Coon`s excavation. Contexts 11, 12, 13, 14, 27, and 28 contain fireplace structures. Among the cultural remains in this trench, the team found remarkable plant remains such as seeds (recorded from fireplace structure), fossils, shells, snails, and stone artifacts. Trench E (65×220 M) after cleaning the Coon’s excavation, we reached the rocky bed of the cave, which allowed us to have a very good view of Trench E to control the section and stratigraphy. This trench is 65 x 220 cm. Context 1 is the surface layer, and contexts 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10,12,15,16,22,23,24,25,26,27,34, and 35 are fireplaces structures. Among these contexts, one of the special findings is the existence of many plant seeds. Contexts 13, 17, 18, 19, 28, 29, and 30 are settlement layers. Contexts 14 and 33 are rubble layers. Context 36 starts from -190 cm to -352 cm on the bedrock of the Kamarband cave and has no cultural finds. Context 37 is the bedrock. The cultural materials of this trench include stone artifacts, chipped stones, plant remains, animal remains, shells, snails, and fossils. Among the special 2021 excavations, we found the Carnivora /wolf teeth in many southeastern Caspian Sea caves, indicating a common shared ideology of Mesolithic people. Due to the destruction of the Neolithic layers in the cave, no evidence of pottery was found during the excavation. Only from Context 2, Trench D, which contained the remains of the Coon`s excavation, were pottery pieces obtained.
Regarding the chronology of Kamarband Cave, Libby from the University of Chicago conducted the first C14 tests of Kamarband Cave on eight charred bone samples from the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods. Elizabeth Ralph studied the C14 results of the second season of the Belt Survey (Libby 1951, 1955). However, these results were problematic, so Gregg and Thornton have calibrated past radiocarbon results in recent years (Gregg and Thornton 2012).
Seven charcoal samples from the Trench E 2021 excavation were tested for absolute dating. The first sample of Context 2 (the uppermost layer) is related to the 11810 ± 60 BC period (Fig. 21). The second sample from context 10 shows the date 12030 ± 60 BC. The third sample is from context 16, showing 12010 ± 60 BC. The fourth sample is from context 13 and shows the date of 12150 ± 60 BC. The fifth sample from context 23 shows the date 12210 ± 60 BC, and a sample from context 29 shows the date 12200 ± 60. The last sample is the lowest space of fire preparation from a depth of 180 cm and shows a date of 12270 ± 60. The results of our studies indicate only the Mesolithic occupation of the Cave, while there is a short gap between the two trenches are visible, and it seems the Cave covered by pale soil/Loss. However, Coon’s report and his section indicate such a short cultural gap as well. It seems the Cave was abandoned much earlier before Younger Dryas and after a long interval before the Pottery Neolithic period was occupied again. During the Mesolithic period, the Kamarband Cave was highly used for daily activities, specifically for the production of stone tools. During the excavation of 2021, around 6736 stone tools were found in the two small trenches, while in the Hotu excavation 2020, less than 2000 stone tools from 10meter cultural layers were recorded, which indicates the different functions of the two Caves (Jayez et al., in press).
Conclusion
According to the past and recent excavations of Hotu, Kamarband, and Komishani Tepe, we still see the chronological gap from the Mesolithic into the Early Neolithic period in the southeastern Caspian Sea shoreline. The emergence of the Modern Mind, the modern behavior revolution, and the formation of symbols and symbolic behavior are the main characteristics of the Mesolithic people of the Caspian Sea. The advances of warmer climate during the Bolling- Allerod period from 18,000 to 12,000 years ago caused the consumption of different resources and the subsistence strategy of the Caspian Sea cave people. From the 2021 excavation of Kamarband, we have recorded remarkable seed remains plus stone implements to support the theory of a new group evolving toward pre-agricultural management in one of Iran’s few regions of coastal societies.
Ahmad Nikgoftar, Abed Taghavi, Hasan Hashemi Zarj Abad, Amin Moradi,
year 8, Issue 30 (1-2025)
year 8, Issue 30 (1-2025)
Abstract
Abstract
The historical city of Esfarayen is one of the most important and glorious cities of the Islamic period, which was one of the important provinces of Neishapur until the Mongol invasion, and shortly after the Mongol invasion and the destruction of Neishapur, it was revived and flourished more than before when the Ilkhanids came to power. At the beginning of Timur’s rule, this city was severely destroyed, and from the end of Timur’s period to the end of Shah Abbas Safaviy’s rule, it grew relatively slowly with political ups and downs, and it was abandoned due to the attack of Afghans and population changes. One of the most important valuable goods that was exported from China to other regions from the third to the twelfth century A.H. is Celadon pottery and the other is blue-white pottery. According to the 9 seasons of archaeological exploration in Shahr-e Belqays, 5 pieces of celadon and 2 pieces of blue-white pottery have been found, which have not been studied so far, and for this reason, research was necessary. The main questions of this research are, first of all, what period do these celadons and blue-and-white porcelain belong to? Secondly, according to the technical structure and typological comparison, are the pottery produced locally or extra-regionally, and how did it enter the city of Esfarayen? The third question is the reason for the presence of this type of pottery in the historical city of Esfarayen based on the archaeological context and historical documents. The descriptive-analytical research method and data collection method is based on field and library studies. The results showed that the celadons belong to the 2nd to the 8th century A.H. and the blue-and-white pottery are dated to the beginning of the 8th to the 11th century. The celadons and blue-whites studied are completely non-native and entered the city of Esfarayen by sea and land. Due to the quality and rarity, the type of motifs and the type of lines and writing themes are related to the noble and wealthy classes of the city.
Keywords: Shahr-e Belqays, Esfarayen, Islamic Period, Chinese Pottery, Ming Dynasty.
Introduction
Due to the strategic position of the land of Iran, which has always been on the path of important East-West communication routes from the past to the present, with a branch of the Silk Road passing through its soil as an intermediary between the civilizations of the Far East, especially China and Its western neighbors were like Iraq and Syria. Among the goods exported from China are the famous Celadon pottery and blue-and-white pottery. Due to the importance of Celadon and blue-and-white pottery, many countries were competing with each other based on their geographical region at that time to take over the market for the products of this art and industry. China was the main manufacturer of this product and Iran was the main highway for the commercial connection of this product to Europe and Africa. The city of Esfarayen is one of the important cities of the Islamic period, which was located on the commercial route of the Silk Road (Moghdisi, 1982: 566); (Ibn-e Howqal, 1986: 188; Jihani, 1988: 149); (Ibn-e Khurdazbah, 1991: 222). Due to the presence of powerful rulers and politicians such as Abu al-Abbas Esfarayeni in the Samanid and Ghaznavid periods, in the Seljuq and Ilkhanid periods such as Saeed Malik Bahauddin Juvini and in the Safavid period, Abu Muslim Khan enjoyed special growth and development and is one of the most prosperous and prosperous cities. Khorasan was considered that the commercial highways passed through this city (Aubin, 1971:121). In addition to crossing the trade route, the existence of thriving markets (Idrisi, 1409 AH, Vol. 2: 690-693)، (Hamiri, 1984: 56), and the production of important goods such as: cloth, metal containers, pottery, makes merchants and In addition to supplying goods imported from far away to this city, merchants should distribute the goods produced in this city to nearby cities and distant places, especially the Iranian plateau, Shamat, Anatolian Peninsula, North Africa, etc. One of the most important imported goods and popular among the governors and residents of this city is the dishes known as Celadon and Blue White, of which 5 pieces of such dishes have been discovered in archaeological excavations (Nikgoftar, 2014). Considering the discovery of this pottery from the archaeological context and the lack of introduction and study of it, and from the mention of writing marks on their surface, the upcoming article tries to analyze them in the context of history and archeology in addition to introducing and reading the lines.
.
Discussion and reasoning
In the archaeological excavations of the city of Esfarayen, a total of 4 pieces of celadon pottery were found, one of which is of the Yue type (3rd-4th century) and the rest is of the Lank Chuan type (6th and 7th century). By examining and comparing these types of pottery, it can be said that in addition to neighboring areas and extra-regional areas, there has been direct or indirect trade with China since the 3rd century, considering the increase in the number of Lankchuan pottery related to the 6th century. And seventhly, from the reference of historical documents about the rule of the Jovini family over this city, their good relations with the Genghis family and the handing over of the government of the western part of Khorasan to this family (Jovini, 2012, vol.2, 222) and the political-economic journey of this family to Mongolia (ibid.: 222) and from the discovery of coins from this period in neighboring regions (Nikgoftar & Behnamfar, 2008) and extra-regional (ТЮНИБЕКЯАН, 2003) it can be said that in this period, Lank Chuan pottery came through the trade route of the Silk Road. That Esfarayen was located in one of these important commercial branches (Maghdisi, 1982: 566); (Ibn-e Howqal, 1986: 188; Jihani, 1988: 149); (Ibn-e Khurdazbah, 1991: 222) entered this city. Among other pottery that can be seen in China and Islamic lands in a significant way after Celadon is blue-and-white pottery, the production of these vessels became common in the states of Jijiang, Jianshui, Yusi and Jiangshan from the Yuan Dynasty, but the best type In the Jindjin states in the city of Chin Khwa (Chin-Hwa), which was related to the imperial furnaces (Bahranipour, 2022: 8). In the archaeological excavations in Shahr-e Belqays, 2 pieces of blue-and-white pottery were identified, which according to the decorations and technical structure belong to the late Timurid and Safavid periods and the Ming period in China. It has been stated that according to the reference of historical documents and archaeological data mentioned above about the importance, value and use of these vessels and from the motifs and lines used and the examination of the technical structure of the vessels which proves that they are non-native, in general, it can be He said that these dishes were made for the order or use of the rich class and nobles in this city.
Conclusion
By studying the piece of Chinese pottery in the city of Esfarayen, so far, two prominent pottery types of Celadan and blue-and-white have been obtained, the first group of Celadan; that by comparative comparison of this species in terms of technical structure such as; The type of paste, glaze and construction form with examples of ceramics obtained from the sites of the Islamic period such as; Siraf, Mehruban, Kish, Neishapur, and Bandar Najiram, it can be said that this type of celadan is imported and non-native, and in terms of chronology, it is similar to the Yue and Lank Chuan types at the same time as the Samanian period until the end of the Ilkhanate period. The increase in the number of Lankchuan type of celadan along with other archaeological evidence and historical documents prove the prosperity and prosperity of this city in the Ilkhanid period and a transregional and global trade connection. Among the other types of pottery that were mentioned are blue-and-white pottery, according to the comparative studies and examination of their technical structure, this type is also imported, according to the references in the historical documents about the destruction of this city in the attack of Timur and its lack of prosperity. It can be said that the presence of this type of pottery in this city dates back to the late Timurid period and the early Safavid period, during which time this city prospered again. According to the taxonomic examination and comparison of the pottery, which is completely similar to the pottery discovered in Hormuz, Taiwan, and the samples obtained from North Africa, it can be said that probably these pottery were indirectly and transregionally and globally from China to the port of Hormuz. And through the south-north highway and through the Jerjan-Tos commercial road, which was restored and reconstructed by Amir Ali Shir Navai in this period, he entered the city of Safrayan. Due to the rarity, quality of construction, themes and motifs, and on the one hand, historical documents indicate that these dishes were used in royal banquets or royal tombs, and from the discovery of these pieces from the citadel and noble houses, it can be said that these dishes are unique to The privileged and prosperous classes belonged to the historical city of Esfarayen. In general, the Chinese writings in the blue-and-white earthenware of Esfarayen city are as follows: the text of container number 9, the writing on the bottom of the container is incomplete and illegible, and the text on the bottom of the container contains the Chinese word called (peace, comfort), (longevity), (happiness) and (health). The text of container number 13 is written with the comparison and typology of the Chinese word du-ming-nlen-zuo, meaning the construction of the Ming period.
The historical city of Esfarayen is one of the most important and glorious cities of the Islamic period, which was one of the important provinces of Neishapur until the Mongol invasion, and shortly after the Mongol invasion and the destruction of Neishapur, it was revived and flourished more than before when the Ilkhanids came to power. At the beginning of Timur’s rule, this city was severely destroyed, and from the end of Timur’s period to the end of Shah Abbas Safaviy’s rule, it grew relatively slowly with political ups and downs, and it was abandoned due to the attack of Afghans and population changes. One of the most important valuable goods that was exported from China to other regions from the third to the twelfth century A.H. is Celadon pottery and the other is blue-white pottery. According to the 9 seasons of archaeological exploration in Shahr-e Belqays, 5 pieces of celadon and 2 pieces of blue-white pottery have been found, which have not been studied so far, and for this reason, research was necessary. The main questions of this research are, first of all, what period do these celadons and blue-and-white porcelain belong to? Secondly, according to the technical structure and typological comparison, are the pottery produced locally or extra-regionally, and how did it enter the city of Esfarayen? The third question is the reason for the presence of this type of pottery in the historical city of Esfarayen based on the archaeological context and historical documents. The descriptive-analytical research method and data collection method is based on field and library studies. The results showed that the celadons belong to the 2nd to the 8th century A.H. and the blue-and-white pottery are dated to the beginning of the 8th to the 11th century. The celadons and blue-whites studied are completely non-native and entered the city of Esfarayen by sea and land. Due to the quality and rarity, the type of motifs and the type of lines and writing themes are related to the noble and wealthy classes of the city.
Keywords: Shahr-e Belqays, Esfarayen, Islamic Period, Chinese Pottery, Ming Dynasty.
Introduction
Due to the strategic position of the land of Iran, which has always been on the path of important East-West communication routes from the past to the present, with a branch of the Silk Road passing through its soil as an intermediary between the civilizations of the Far East, especially China and Its western neighbors were like Iraq and Syria. Among the goods exported from China are the famous Celadon pottery and blue-and-white pottery. Due to the importance of Celadon and blue-and-white pottery, many countries were competing with each other based on their geographical region at that time to take over the market for the products of this art and industry. China was the main manufacturer of this product and Iran was the main highway for the commercial connection of this product to Europe and Africa. The city of Esfarayen is one of the important cities of the Islamic period, which was located on the commercial route of the Silk Road (Moghdisi, 1982: 566); (Ibn-e Howqal, 1986: 188; Jihani, 1988: 149); (Ibn-e Khurdazbah, 1991: 222). Due to the presence of powerful rulers and politicians such as Abu al-Abbas Esfarayeni in the Samanid and Ghaznavid periods, in the Seljuq and Ilkhanid periods such as Saeed Malik Bahauddin Juvini and in the Safavid period, Abu Muslim Khan enjoyed special growth and development and is one of the most prosperous and prosperous cities. Khorasan was considered that the commercial highways passed through this city (Aubin, 1971:121). In addition to crossing the trade route, the existence of thriving markets (Idrisi, 1409 AH, Vol. 2: 690-693)، (Hamiri, 1984: 56), and the production of important goods such as: cloth, metal containers, pottery, makes merchants and In addition to supplying goods imported from far away to this city, merchants should distribute the goods produced in this city to nearby cities and distant places, especially the Iranian plateau, Shamat, Anatolian Peninsula, North Africa, etc. One of the most important imported goods and popular among the governors and residents of this city is the dishes known as Celadon and Blue White, of which 5 pieces of such dishes have been discovered in archaeological excavations (Nikgoftar, 2014). Considering the discovery of this pottery from the archaeological context and the lack of introduction and study of it, and from the mention of writing marks on their surface, the upcoming article tries to analyze them in the context of history and archeology in addition to introducing and reading the lines.
.
Discussion and reasoning
In the archaeological excavations of the city of Esfarayen, a total of 4 pieces of celadon pottery were found, one of which is of the Yue type (3rd-4th century) and the rest is of the Lank Chuan type (6th and 7th century). By examining and comparing these types of pottery, it can be said that in addition to neighboring areas and extra-regional areas, there has been direct or indirect trade with China since the 3rd century, considering the increase in the number of Lankchuan pottery related to the 6th century. And seventhly, from the reference of historical documents about the rule of the Jovini family over this city, their good relations with the Genghis family and the handing over of the government of the western part of Khorasan to this family (Jovini, 2012, vol.2, 222) and the political-economic journey of this family to Mongolia (ibid.: 222) and from the discovery of coins from this period in neighboring regions (Nikgoftar & Behnamfar, 2008) and extra-regional (ТЮНИБЕКЯАН, 2003) it can be said that in this period, Lank Chuan pottery came through the trade route of the Silk Road. That Esfarayen was located in one of these important commercial branches (Maghdisi, 1982: 566); (Ibn-e Howqal, 1986: 188; Jihani, 1988: 149); (Ibn-e Khurdazbah, 1991: 222) entered this city. Among other pottery that can be seen in China and Islamic lands in a significant way after Celadon is blue-and-white pottery, the production of these vessels became common in the states of Jijiang, Jianshui, Yusi and Jiangshan from the Yuan Dynasty, but the best type In the Jindjin states in the city of Chin Khwa (Chin-Hwa), which was related to the imperial furnaces (Bahranipour, 2022: 8). In the archaeological excavations in Shahr-e Belqays, 2 pieces of blue-and-white pottery were identified, which according to the decorations and technical structure belong to the late Timurid and Safavid periods and the Ming period in China. It has been stated that according to the reference of historical documents and archaeological data mentioned above about the importance, value and use of these vessels and from the motifs and lines used and the examination of the technical structure of the vessels which proves that they are non-native, in general, it can be He said that these dishes were made for the order or use of the rich class and nobles in this city.
Conclusion
By studying the piece of Chinese pottery in the city of Esfarayen, so far, two prominent pottery types of Celadan and blue-and-white have been obtained, the first group of Celadan; that by comparative comparison of this species in terms of technical structure such as; The type of paste, glaze and construction form with examples of ceramics obtained from the sites of the Islamic period such as; Siraf, Mehruban, Kish, Neishapur, and Bandar Najiram, it can be said that this type of celadan is imported and non-native, and in terms of chronology, it is similar to the Yue and Lank Chuan types at the same time as the Samanian period until the end of the Ilkhanate period. The increase in the number of Lankchuan type of celadan along with other archaeological evidence and historical documents prove the prosperity and prosperity of this city in the Ilkhanid period and a transregional and global trade connection. Among the other types of pottery that were mentioned are blue-and-white pottery, according to the comparative studies and examination of their technical structure, this type is also imported, according to the references in the historical documents about the destruction of this city in the attack of Timur and its lack of prosperity. It can be said that the presence of this type of pottery in this city dates back to the late Timurid period and the early Safavid period, during which time this city prospered again. According to the taxonomic examination and comparison of the pottery, which is completely similar to the pottery discovered in Hormuz, Taiwan, and the samples obtained from North Africa, it can be said that probably these pottery were indirectly and transregionally and globally from China to the port of Hormuz. And through the south-north highway and through the Jerjan-Tos commercial road, which was restored and reconstructed by Amir Ali Shir Navai in this period, he entered the city of Safrayan. Due to the rarity, quality of construction, themes and motifs, and on the one hand, historical documents indicate that these dishes were used in royal banquets or royal tombs, and from the discovery of these pieces from the citadel and noble houses, it can be said that these dishes are unique to The privileged and prosperous classes belonged to the historical city of Esfarayen. In general, the Chinese writings in the blue-and-white earthenware of Esfarayen city are as follows: the text of container number 9, the writing on the bottom of the container is incomplete and illegible, and the text on the bottom of the container contains the Chinese word called (peace, comfort), (longevity), (happiness) and (health). The text of container number 13 is written with the comparison and typology of the Chinese word du-ming-nlen-zuo, meaning the construction of the Ming period.
Sajjad Alibaigi, Mohsen Zeynivand, Alireza Moradi Bisotuni,
year 9, Issue 32 (8-2025)
year 9, Issue 32 (8-2025)
Abstract
Abstract
Previous archaeological research in the Māhidasht region is more focused on the prehistoric period despite the importance of this large and important plain, almost no information is available about its historic period. The whole of the Māhidasht plain and especially its northern part is full of large and small sites of prehistoric and historical periods. Among these ancient settlements, Quwākh Tapeh deserves special attention due to its size, settlement sequence, and surface findings. Therefore, in this article, with a descriptive-analytical method and historical approach, we try to study the site and its surface findings, and finally answer the following questions: What periods does the site have and what was the process of its expanding? What do the findings of the Quwākh Tapeh tell us about the function of sites? The results of the study of surface findings show that the site is an important settlement that was inhabited at least from the Bronze Age and probably before that and developed in the Iron Age III and Parthian periods. Among the surface findings, the Door socket from Assyrian indicates the existence of a Neo-Assyrian-style building in the site, which according to cuneiform texts related to the political situation of the Central Zagros in this period, is probably a clue to the existence of a Neo-Assyrian building. The discovery of coins Howard from the site, show the importance of the site in the Seleucid period, is probably a clue to the long-distance trade relations of the inhabitants of this site as one of the most important ancient settlements along the Greater Khorasan Road in Māhidasht- Kouzarān plain.
Keywords: Māhidasht - Kouzarān Plain, Quwākh Tapeh, Neo-Assyrian Period, Door Socket, Bes, Alexander, Mazaeus.
Introduction
The Great Māhidasht Plain is the largest, best watered, and most fertile plain in the Zagros area. These features, along with its mild climate and, most importantly, its location on the Silk Road, have been a constant draw for human groups and important settlements have been established there. In the Great Māhidasht region, numerous studies by several scholars have identified 550 archaeological sites from Paleolithic to historical times, some of which are registered on the Iran National Heritage List owing to their importance.
One of the major settlements of the Great Māhidasht Plain is Quwākh Tapeh in the north of Māhidasht and southeast of Kouzarān, which has been studied and visited several times by archaeologists. However, little is known about this site and, despite the occasional discovery of a small treasure trove of ancient coins, it remains less-known due to the lack of archaeological excavations.
Quwākh Tapeh is a relatively large mound located 43 km west of Kermānshāh and a little more than 4 km southeast of the small town of Kouzarān. The site comprises a large prominence 330 m long, 220 m wide, and 17 m taller than the surrounding lands (Great Central Mound). There are numerous small or large prominences both near to and far from the mound, indicating a large archaeological site measuring 500 m2, with a current area of approximately 25 ha.
The mound was first identified in Schmidt’s 1934 surveys, locating Quwākh Tapeh on a map published in 1940 in the book, Flights Over Ancient Cities of Iran. Some years later, in the 1940s, the site was surveyed and visited by Stein. Ali Akbar Sarfarāz and colleagues reexamined the site in the surveys of the Great Māhidasht Plain in 1968. In 1998, during the investigations of Abbas Motarjem in Kouzarān plain, Quwākh Tapeh was revisited. In his report, Motarjem described Quwākh Tapeh as a site dating back to the Parthian period.
Findings
Nearly 30 years ago, a student accidentally found a small ceramic vessel containing a highly important treasure 205 m east of the central high mound of Quwākh Tapeh. Shortly thereafter, the incident was reported to the Kouzarān police and the Cultural Heritage Office of Kermānshāh then became aware of the discovery. This is how the treasure was kept safe from plunder and all of its contents were collected and made available to the government.
According to locals, this small treasure was found about 1 m deep at 205 m east of the Great Central Mound of Quwākh Tapeh and was revealed by floods after digging a canal in the mounds. The ceramic vessel contained 141 silver coins featuring Alexander the Great, Mazaeus the Achaemenid/Macedonian Satrap of Babylon and imitating Athenian Owl type.
This treasure has a total weight of roughly 2 kg and the very small amount of green oxide on the coins shows they were minted with high-grade silver. It seems likely that the treasure was deposited during the Early Seleucid period, given the time span of the discovered coins and the lack of specimens more recent than the Antiochus I or II period.
Stone Door Socket
On our first visit to the eastern slope of Quwākh Tapeh in 2014, we found four pieces of white limestone, one of which was used as a staircase, in the courtyard of a deserted and half-ruined house. Near another house to the south of the site were several other carved stones, one of which, if not an obelisk base, is probably a small stone casket. Our recent visit revealed that the owner of the abandoned house had removed the stone staircase to the edge of his farmland. Examination showed that this carved and ornamented stone was not an ordinary stone fragment, but a very large door socket in the style of the Neo-Assyrian period. Similar door sockets were uncovered in Neo-Assyrian palaces or temples of the Mesopotamia, including the temple of Nebo in Khorsabad, Neo-Assyrian palaces at Nimrud and Khorsabad, and Neo-Assyrian provincial capitals such as Arsalanatash, Till-Barsib, and Ziyaret Tepe. This monumental door socket indicates that Quwākh Tapeh was not an ordinary village, but rather a place with important constructions, the most important of which was likely a complex dating back to the Neo-Assyrian period.
Conclusion
The results of our investigation into Quwākh Tapeh-especially the extent of archaeological deposits and the existence of numerous and varied pottery collections and stone objects—indicate that Quwākh Tapeh was an important center in the Neo-Assyrian period and that it contains significant archeological remnants. The discovery of the door socket in the Neo-Assyrian period is particularly interesting. If this door socket belongs to the Assyrian period, it is in fact the second Zagros site, after Tapeh Giyan in Nahavand, to reveal remnants of the Neo-Assyrian Empire of the 8th century BCE. Given that the Assyrian cuneiform texts speak of the conquest of the region and its annexation to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the discovery of this finding may be important to tracing the Assyrian settlement in Iran, which is frequently mentioned in the texts, but missing from archaeological remnants.
The discovery at Quwākh Tapeh of a small treasure trove of ancient coins dating back to the 4th through 3rd centuries BCE is also significant. The finding of the Athenian Owl-type coins in the heart of central Zagros, far from their minting location, is important in itself, and will bring forth various topics for further study. The most recent coin in the collection dates back to the four Century BCE. This suggests that the treasure found at Quwākh Tapeh was likely deposited in the early Seleucid period (before 320 BCE).
Previous archaeological research in the Māhidasht region is more focused on the prehistoric period despite the importance of this large and important plain, almost no information is available about its historic period. The whole of the Māhidasht plain and especially its northern part is full of large and small sites of prehistoric and historical periods. Among these ancient settlements, Quwākh Tapeh deserves special attention due to its size, settlement sequence, and surface findings. Therefore, in this article, with a descriptive-analytical method and historical approach, we try to study the site and its surface findings, and finally answer the following questions: What periods does the site have and what was the process of its expanding? What do the findings of the Quwākh Tapeh tell us about the function of sites? The results of the study of surface findings show that the site is an important settlement that was inhabited at least from the Bronze Age and probably before that and developed in the Iron Age III and Parthian periods. Among the surface findings, the Door socket from Assyrian indicates the existence of a Neo-Assyrian-style building in the site, which according to cuneiform texts related to the political situation of the Central Zagros in this period, is probably a clue to the existence of a Neo-Assyrian building. The discovery of coins Howard from the site, show the importance of the site in the Seleucid period, is probably a clue to the long-distance trade relations of the inhabitants of this site as one of the most important ancient settlements along the Greater Khorasan Road in Māhidasht- Kouzarān plain.
Keywords: Māhidasht - Kouzarān Plain, Quwākh Tapeh, Neo-Assyrian Period, Door Socket, Bes, Alexander, Mazaeus.
Introduction
The Great Māhidasht Plain is the largest, best watered, and most fertile plain in the Zagros area. These features, along with its mild climate and, most importantly, its location on the Silk Road, have been a constant draw for human groups and important settlements have been established there. In the Great Māhidasht region, numerous studies by several scholars have identified 550 archaeological sites from Paleolithic to historical times, some of which are registered on the Iran National Heritage List owing to their importance.
One of the major settlements of the Great Māhidasht Plain is Quwākh Tapeh in the north of Māhidasht and southeast of Kouzarān, which has been studied and visited several times by archaeologists. However, little is known about this site and, despite the occasional discovery of a small treasure trove of ancient coins, it remains less-known due to the lack of archaeological excavations.
Quwākh Tapeh is a relatively large mound located 43 km west of Kermānshāh and a little more than 4 km southeast of the small town of Kouzarān. The site comprises a large prominence 330 m long, 220 m wide, and 17 m taller than the surrounding lands (Great Central Mound). There are numerous small or large prominences both near to and far from the mound, indicating a large archaeological site measuring 500 m2, with a current area of approximately 25 ha.
The mound was first identified in Schmidt’s 1934 surveys, locating Quwākh Tapeh on a map published in 1940 in the book, Flights Over Ancient Cities of Iran. Some years later, in the 1940s, the site was surveyed and visited by Stein. Ali Akbar Sarfarāz and colleagues reexamined the site in the surveys of the Great Māhidasht Plain in 1968. In 1998, during the investigations of Abbas Motarjem in Kouzarān plain, Quwākh Tapeh was revisited. In his report, Motarjem described Quwākh Tapeh as a site dating back to the Parthian period.
Findings
Nearly 30 years ago, a student accidentally found a small ceramic vessel containing a highly important treasure 205 m east of the central high mound of Quwākh Tapeh. Shortly thereafter, the incident was reported to the Kouzarān police and the Cultural Heritage Office of Kermānshāh then became aware of the discovery. This is how the treasure was kept safe from plunder and all of its contents were collected and made available to the government.
According to locals, this small treasure was found about 1 m deep at 205 m east of the Great Central Mound of Quwākh Tapeh and was revealed by floods after digging a canal in the mounds. The ceramic vessel contained 141 silver coins featuring Alexander the Great, Mazaeus the Achaemenid/Macedonian Satrap of Babylon and imitating Athenian Owl type.
This treasure has a total weight of roughly 2 kg and the very small amount of green oxide on the coins shows they were minted with high-grade silver. It seems likely that the treasure was deposited during the Early Seleucid period, given the time span of the discovered coins and the lack of specimens more recent than the Antiochus I or II period.
Stone Door Socket
On our first visit to the eastern slope of Quwākh Tapeh in 2014, we found four pieces of white limestone, one of which was used as a staircase, in the courtyard of a deserted and half-ruined house. Near another house to the south of the site were several other carved stones, one of which, if not an obelisk base, is probably a small stone casket. Our recent visit revealed that the owner of the abandoned house had removed the stone staircase to the edge of his farmland. Examination showed that this carved and ornamented stone was not an ordinary stone fragment, but a very large door socket in the style of the Neo-Assyrian period. Similar door sockets were uncovered in Neo-Assyrian palaces or temples of the Mesopotamia, including the temple of Nebo in Khorsabad, Neo-Assyrian palaces at Nimrud and Khorsabad, and Neo-Assyrian provincial capitals such as Arsalanatash, Till-Barsib, and Ziyaret Tepe. This monumental door socket indicates that Quwākh Tapeh was not an ordinary village, but rather a place with important constructions, the most important of which was likely a complex dating back to the Neo-Assyrian period.
Conclusion
The results of our investigation into Quwākh Tapeh-especially the extent of archaeological deposits and the existence of numerous and varied pottery collections and stone objects—indicate that Quwākh Tapeh was an important center in the Neo-Assyrian period and that it contains significant archeological remnants. The discovery of the door socket in the Neo-Assyrian period is particularly interesting. If this door socket belongs to the Assyrian period, it is in fact the second Zagros site, after Tapeh Giyan in Nahavand, to reveal remnants of the Neo-Assyrian Empire of the 8th century BCE. Given that the Assyrian cuneiform texts speak of the conquest of the region and its annexation to the Neo-Assyrian Empire, the discovery of this finding may be important to tracing the Assyrian settlement in Iran, which is frequently mentioned in the texts, but missing from archaeological remnants.
The discovery at Quwākh Tapeh of a small treasure trove of ancient coins dating back to the 4th through 3rd centuries BCE is also significant. The finding of the Athenian Owl-type coins in the heart of central Zagros, far from their minting location, is important in itself, and will bring forth various topics for further study. The most recent coin in the collection dates back to the four Century BCE. This suggests that the treasure found at Quwākh Tapeh was likely deposited in the early Seleucid period (before 320 BCE).
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