Abstract
Lorestan bridges have been of particular importance in different eras due to being located on ancient roads. Bridges built for various purposes, including political, religious and economic, have acted as valley bridges in addition to linking different areas through crossing ravaged rivers of Lorestan at the time such as Kashkan and establishing road safety. Lack of awareness by the local people, the country and the international community of the value of these properties, the destruction of their properties and their associated environments by indigenous peoples and domestic tourists, the lack of a comprehensive and integrated conservation program and the lack of proper budget allocation for their restoration, Their natural context for conservation and restoration has all made these valuable and indigenous properties in the process of destruction. Accordingly, the purpose of the research is to identify the cultural landscape of historical bridges attributed to the Sassanid period of the Kashkan River and to establish a structuralist framework through the analysis of national and international laws, charters, conventions, and treaties to conserve their cultural landscape. In this research, library and field data were collected and four bridges: Kashan, Kelahor-e-Mamulan, pol-e-dokhtar, and Gavmishan were selected as study samples due to historical and architectural values. In the following, recommendations for the conservation of selected bridges’ cultural landscapes were categorized into two categories, generic and specific to the selected bridges themselves using qualitative research method, data analysis, and coding operations at three levels to reach the final results of the research. 
Keywords: Conservation of Cultural Landscape, Historic Bridges, Sassanid Period, Lorestan, Kashkan River.

Introduction
Lorestan province, with its rich and important rivers such as Seymareh, Kashkan and Cesar, has one of the richest flowing water networks. In addition to communicating with the two capitals (Susa-Ekbatan), this province has always established the connection between the old Babylon, then Ctesiphon, and then Baghdad, to Isfahan, through Khorramabad. (Siroux, 1978: 32-33). From other roads, separated from Lorestan, we can refer to Susa to Bisotun and Susa to Masbazan road (Minorsky, 1937). The need for quick and easy access and constant communication between these areas, despite the rich rivers and deep valleys, has led to the construction of huge bridges that makes a man wonder7 (UNESCO, 2016). These bridges have been built to connect large civilizations and some extent of the realization of human rights, religious, ethnic, economic and cultural ties, as well as development, prosperity, security and comfort in difficult mountainous regions (UNESCO, 2016). The undiscovered identity and value of these works for the indigenous people of Lorestan and at higher levels, the country and the international community, the destruction of the works themselves and the natural environment, associated with, by indigenous people (intentionally interfering with the cultural landscape of the bridges), lack of comprehensive conservation and restoration plans and lack of necessary credit allocations from organizations, entrusted with these works, the non-formal and mere physical restoration of some properties, regardless of the context in which, they are formed, have all made these valuable properties of art and cultural landscape associated with, to increasing degradation. In Lorestan cultural domain, these properties have been constructed with the highest quality of locating and building, and study of these works and conservation challenges of their cultural landscapes, can certainly Conserve bridges, with addition follows:
• To illuminate and conserve various historical layers of the region;
• To preserve the natural environment (including river, valley, etc.) where the bridges are located;
• For legibility and conservation of the region’s indigenous culture and
• To achieve construction technologies of bridges, for future conservation and restoration of these properties.
This research seeks to identify the Cultural landscape of Historic Bridges on the River Kashkan and its conservation challenges, in order to provide a basis for helping, define a systematic model to conserve its cultural landscape. In this regard, the following question is defined as:
• What is the definition of the cultural landscape of historic Bridges on the River Kashkan?
• How can a systematic, structuralist model be achieved to conserve the cultural landscape of historic bridges over the Kashkan River?

Discussion
According to the epigraph left by the bridge, Badr-ibn-Hasanwayeh has introduced himself as a constructor to this bridges. The cultural landscape of these Bridges is an integrated collection, interacting with humans over time in the geographical domain of middle Zagros. Despite the vagueness of the “cultural landscape” meanings, today this word has become one of the most controversial words in the World Heritage Convention. Challenges are coming into place when modern science cannot face the challenges of different levels and disciplines (Zibalkalam, 2018). Conservation is also no exception to this and has undergone various changes over time to respond to problems, encountered in conservation. The analysis of this research is carried out through “codifying” at three levels: first cycle codifying, second cycle (middle) codifying, and third or final cycle codifying (post-coding). The codes were reviewed and stored to verify the qualitative data, in order to identify conservation principles of the cultural landscape of these Bridge (the core of the research), at the final stage (Afshar, 2014). In the following, by integrating, the results of code analysis are compatible with the dispersive components of the image (Giviyan, 2016). In the following, recommendations for the conservation of selected bridges’ cultural landscapes were categorized into two categories, generic and specific to the selected bridges themselves using qualitative research method, data analysis, and coding operations at three levels to reach the final results of the research.

Conclusion
This research, in the form of fundamental-applied research, was able to identify the conservation of the cultural landscapes of the studied historical bridges and make them applicable to other similar historical bridges in Lorestan. This study was able to introduce recommendations in two general categories Generic and specific to the bridges themselves. In response to the first part of the research question, the concepts and constituent elements of the cultural landscape of historical bridges were identified through the library, field studies, and analysis of various concepts in the subject literature and in accordance with the native conditions of the cultural landscape under study. In answer to the second part of the research question, it can be said that by analyzing the collected literature and taking a look at field studies, by examining and analyzing the challenges of conserving cultural landscapes and the meanings and concepts of conservation in national charters, conventions and treaties, and International; Investigating and analyzing the meanings and concepts of cultural landscapes in national and international charters, conventions and treaties. These recommendations, since taken from the very context of the aforementioned research and context, have been categorized into a specific framework and have created a systematic model for the conservation of the cultural landscapes of the historical bridges studied. 

Abstract
Lut desert is located in southeastern Iran. The area, despite having many historical monuments, including numerous castles, has not received enough attention from architectural historians. This study aims to clarify the architectural features and the purpose for the multiplicity of these fortresses in this region, it has been tried to study and investigate them with descriptive, analytical, and logical cognitive methods. The research was carried out by library and field studies of 140 castles, as case studies, in the region. The study’s results show that the climate and security factors are the main reasons for erecting the castles. Abundant water and location on the trade routes made the region rich, and on the other hand, point water sources and their limitations caused dispersion and distance between the structures and increased insecurity. According to historical sources, desert outlaws have also had a large presence in the region.  Besides, the techniques to deal with violent sandstorms had caused them to build cities and villages in the middle of high barriers, or to build a castle inside or around it for use in times of need, which caused the number of castles in the investigated area. This has also caused the majority of castles in the region to have residential functions and be built inside or around cities and villages, and other functions and establishments are less frequent. The architecture of the castles and defense fortifications of the region also follows the common architecture of the central plateau castles, excluding incomparable cases. So, most of the castles follow the square and rectangular geometry, and in some cases, the irregular, trapezoidal, and parallelogram geometry is derived from the climatic and contextual conditions. The materials used were canvas and due to the ease of construction, speed of mass production, lower cost and camouflage, mud and mud brick in plain fortresses, and stone in mountain ones. Most of the towers are built in the corners and the middle of the sides with observational, defensive, and structural functions, and in some cases, towers are seen in the middle of the castle with only observational functions. The fortresses’ defense structure mainly is based on the barrier and tower, and as the wealth and population of residential castles increased, more defense boundaries were added.
Keywords: Fortress, Defensive Fortifications, Lot Desert, Kerman.

Introduction
Castles were military or civilian fortifications that were built using natural geographical features to maintain security (Sultani Mohammadi and Bulouri Bunab, 2015: 75). There are many variations in their use and they have a form of residence and social structure, different from the structure of the village and city (Parsi, 1383: 136; Nurbakhsh, 1366: 147).
In Iran, the formation of enclosed group buildings with various methods has a history of three thousand years (Kleiss, 1383: 160). The early forts in Iran can be seen as a relic of the agricultural civilization, when humans started to settle down and needed to maintain their security (Kiani, 1374: 78). In the past, next to many settlements and cities of Iran, there were one or more fortresses, which became people’s shelters during unrest and insecurity (Pirnia and Me‘marian, 2007: 82). Their functions were different, and the smallest of them was a military base or post, and the largest of them were guarded shelters for caravans and military and defensive forts (Siro, 1357: 54). Also, some of them were the central core of the ancient cities of Iran, and the main life of the people was often formed inside the fortresses and old forts (Zarei and Heydari Baba Kamal, 2016: 202). Some scholars believe that castles were built first and then towns were formed around them (Zuka, 1374; Na‘imi, 1389). These defense structures were usually built by the governments to protect the strategic and border cities against the enemy’s invasion and the encroachments of nomadic desert rovers (Wiley, 2016: 26).
Owing to political, economic, and geographical requirements, in both pre-Islamic and Islamic eras, numerous fortresses, and defensive buildings were built. The southern and western edge of the Lut desert in Kerman province is one of them, due to its special geographical location, has many historical castles that have not been studied and investigated in detail, and the studies conducted are limited to archaeological investigations and identifications and monographs. It is related to buildings. This area consists of important cities such as Ravar, Shahdad, Bam, Fahraj, Regan and Narmashir. Each of these cities had political, social and economic prestige at some point in history from the third and fourth millennium BC to the middle Islamic centuries (Qazvini, 1373: 243; Muqadsi, 1361: 680 and 684; Istakhari, 1373: 246; Yaqut, 1383: 269 and 296; Zarei and Heydari Kamal, 1393: 196, Hakimi, 1385: 28; Hakeimi, 1351: 78; Kabuli, 1369: 213). Considering the importance of this type of building in understanding the historical architecture of Iran, as well as the process of their destruction due to natural and human erosion, it is necessary to examine them with a closer look and in more detail. The upcoming research has investigated the castles of this area with such an approach and tried to answer two main questions: 1- What are the architectural characteristics of the fortress in the geographical area of the southern and western border of the Lut desert? 2- What is the main reason for the appearance, formation, and number of fortresses in this region?

Discussion
The structure used in the barrier of all the load-bearing wall castles and the materials used in the fence of all the plain castles the mud and mud brick and mountain areas, stone and baked brick are used for strengthening the base of the barriers. Stone has been the main material in the few mountain castles in the region. Although various decorations are used in the castles, due to functional reasons, they are seen in a limited number.
In terms of shape, the majority of castles in the region are square and rectangular, that is, the dominant form of such buildings in the central plateau of Iran. However, there are several castles with special trapezoidal, parallelogram, and irregular geometries, which were built in this way due to the specific topography of the environment and climatic conditions, such as facing sandstorms.
The dominant form of the towers is also cylindrical. In some cases, rectangular cube forms and square bases have been used, all of which have led to more structural resistance of the towers. The semi-cylindrical form has also led to the optimal use of space. Only one case of a triangular tower foundation has been seen in the castles, which is considered an exception. In terms of the location of the towers, the majority are placed in the corners and middle of the sides, which is by the usual architecture of castles. However, the construction of towers in the middle of the castle is surprising in many cases.
The defense structure of the castles of the region is based on two types, fenced and unfenced. Most of them consist of walls and towers, and several fences and ditches have been added. In some cases, the position of the bed in the mountain castles has been used and, on some sides, the fence has been removed. Most of the castles are located inside or outside of villages and cities for security and climatic reasons. The forts on the road and near the rivers were also built for security reasons.
To determine the exact function of fortresses is unclear, however, based on the previous data, the purpose can be recognized to some extent. Therefore, the castles that were built at the critical points between the road and the water divide had military use in strategic locations. The fortresses that were built in the center and around the villages were the lords’ fortifications that had either a residential position or an economic function. In the case of expansion and adding spaces such as the guard’s room, posts, and spaces similar to the military function, they become residential and if they are located in a prosperous city and court spaces are located inside them, they have a ruler’s seat. Fortresses that are located next to villages and cities have a shelter function.  

Conclusion 
the research studied the architectural features of the fortifications and defensive structures of the western and southern border of the Lut desert from 5 aspects: construction method, defensive structure, form, location, and function. The results of this study show that the fence structure of all the castles under investigation of the load-bearing wall is mainly made of mud and mud bricks, and in some cases, stone and brick have been used in combination with them for more strength. The richness of mud and mud bricks, cheapness and lower construction expenses, riches of mass production, faster production, matching the color with the environment, and helping to better camouflage compared to bricks and non-woven materials. Also, few mountain castles are built with stone materials due to their availability and the possibility of camouflage. The defense structure of most castles is based on fences and towers, and the number of towers and fences has been reduced and increased according to demand, and moats have been used. In general, as the wealth and population of castles, one of whose functions was residential, increased, rulers and residents increased the number of defense layers. There is also a type without fence, which is built due to climate and derived from the form of nuclear villages. In this way, the height of the external walls was increased to prevent the entry of sand into the central structure, no doors and windows were opened to the outside, and the passage was made only through the gate. This is not only to deal with climatic problems but also increases the security of the castle. The dominant form in the castles of the region is square and rectangular, but due to climatic and contextual reasons, many rhombus-shaped, trapezoidal, and irregular castles have also been built. The castles built based on the plan, follow the traditional square and rectangular geometry of the castles of the central plateau of Iran. The castles that have expanded over time and the castles that have been designed using the characteristics of the bed and the background (such as mountain and riverside castles) have irregular geometry. Most of the towers are built in the middle of the sides and corners however, in some cases, the construction of towers is in the middle and outside of the fortress. The towers in the middle of the castle had only an observation role, but the towers located in the corners and the middle of the sides had a defensive and structural role. Also, due to structural and spatial reasons, some castles are made of rectangular cube towers, cube bases, and semi-cylindrical towers.
The number of castles in the region is affected by the forces of security and climate. The inhabitant areas of the western and southern border of Lut have been very rich due to plentiful water and are located on commercial roads. On the other hand, the limitation of point water sources such as wells, aqueducts, and springs had caused the creation of irregular and scattered villages in the middle of the desert with a distance from each other and increased insecurity. According to historical sources, desert outlaws have also had a large presence in the region. All these factors, in addition to the techniques to deal with violent sand storms, had caused cities and villages to be built in the middle of the fence, or to build a castle inside or around it for use in times of need, which has caused the number of castles in the investigated area.  This has caused the majority of fortresses in the region to have residential functions and to be built around and inside villages and cities, and other functions and settlements are less frequent.

Abstract
Historic cities, as reflections of the interaction between natural and human forces over different periods, have always provided a basis for studying physical structures and spatial transformations. From this perspective, the historic city of Narāq—due to its particular geographical location along the communication routes from Kashan to western Iran and its access to natural resources and physical elements—has so far remained largely unexamined. The main objective of this study is to investigate and analyze the role of both natural and human geographical factors in the formation of the spatial structure and the physical transformations of Narāq throughout its history, an issue that has not yet been addressed in a comprehensive and systematic manner.   This study employs a descriptive–historical approach, utilizing both documentary and field data collection methods. Historical written sources—including geographical texts, travelogues, waqf deeds, and local documents—were analyzed.  The findings indicate that Narāq’s location along major historical trade routes and its access to water resources, combined with the region’s specific topographical conditions, played a pivotal role in its economic prosperity and in shaping the city’s linear spatial pattern during the Safavid and Qajar periods.  The findings indicate that Narāq’s location along major historical trade routes and its access to water resources, combined with the region’s specific topographical conditions, played a pivotal role in its economic prosperity and in shaping the city’s linear spatial pattern during the Safavid and Qajar periods. The interruption of these communication routes and the economic changes in the contemporary era have led to a decline in the city’s urban functions, creating a spatial disconnect between the historic core and the new urban developments. The research highlights the need to formulate conservation strategies and spatial regeneration plans that aim to restore the relationship between the historic elements and the city’s contemporary structure.
Keywords: Narāq, Historical Geography, Communication Routes, Spatial Structure, Historic City.

Introduction
Previous studies on the city of Narāq have primarily provided a brief examination of its physical fabric and individual historical monuments, without offering a systematic understanding of the role and impact of natural and human geographical factors in the city’s spatial and physical formation and transformation. Moreover, the alteration of communication routes in the contemporary period and the resulting disruption in the continuity of physical and functional connections have posed serious challenges to the city’s historical identity and spatial cohesion.
The central question of this research is how natural factors—such as climate, water resources, and topography—and human factors—including economic, cultural, and political relations—have, at different historical periods and in various ways, contributed to shaping the spatial and physical structure of Narāq, and what consequences this process has had for the pattern of the city’s contemporary development.
The study and analysis of the historical geography of ancient cities—particularly Narāq—is significant because these settlements represent a living reflection of the interactions between natural and human forces throughout history. Understanding the processes that shaped them provides a valuable basis for interpreting their spatial and historical identity, for planning sustainable development, and for formulating policies aimed at conserving urban heritage.
At a time when many of the country’s historic cities are facing crises of identity and physical integrity as a result of contemporary spatial and functional transformations, examining the factors that influenced the spatial formation and evolution of Narāq—as a prominent example of a strategically located settlement on the Iranian Plateau—can help identify development patterns that are better suited to local and historical contexts.
The necessity of this research also lies in filling the existing gap in systematic historical–geographical studies on Narāq and in clarifying the role of communication routes and natural resources in its spatial formation and subsequent transformations—an issue that has been largely overlooked in both national and regional research so far.

Research Questions and Hypothesis: The primary research question aims to identify the key factors that influenced the historical development of the city of Narāq. In particular:
• What role have human factors played in the city’s formation?
The primary hypothesis proposed in response to these questions relates to Narāq’s distinctive geographical position—specifically, its location along major communication routes. Although environmental factors such as water resources and agricultural lands played a crucial role in the formation and subsequent transformation of the city’s spatial structure, these developments were fundamentally shaped by regional connections and the city’s position on important trade routes.

Urban Structure of Narāq
The principal structural elements of a traditional Iranian city typically include: the Arg or Kuhandezh (citadel), the Shahrestan (main residential city), the central urban complex—comprising mosques, madrasas, bazaars, and neighborhood centers—urban connecting spaces such as alleys (guzar), squares, hosseiniyehs, and shrines, the outer section (rabad) with surrounding villages, gardens and farmlands, as well as water-related features such as qanats, cisterns, and icehouses (Tousili, 2012: 34).
Field surveys show that among these elements, Narāq essentially lacks a Kuhandezh (old citadel) that would have formed the basis for the city’s secondary development. This absence may be attributed to the history and type of early settlements in the region, characterized by numerous farmlands scattered across the geographical setting of Narāq. Kalantar Zarrabi, in his History of Kashan, describes it as follows:
“From Narāq, a great river and torrent descend from the mouth of Suk Cham, first from the southern and western highlands of Kashan, crossing the travelers’ road to Iraq-e Ajam and Arabia, and finally reaching the Kashan plain. Along the banks and surroundings of the river lie green and flourishing villages and farmlands.” (Kalantar Zarrabi, 1962: 17)
From a morphological perspective, Narāq exhibits a compact urban fabric oriented east–west, following the course of the river and parallel to the northern and southern mountain ranges. This layout clearly reflects the influence of geographical location on the city’s form. The urban fabric is shaped by two main thoroughfares:
• Imam Khomeini Street, which extends in an east–west direction, and
• Fazel Naraqi Street, which runs parallel to Imam Khomeini Street, starting from the eastern part of the city and leading westward to the Jame’ Mosque.

Conclusion
This study aimed to explore the historical geography of the city of Narāq and to explain the role of natural factors in shaping the city’s formation and spatial–physical transformations. The findings reveal that Narāq’s distinctive geographical location along the historical communication routes between Kashan and western Iran—especially during the Safavid and Qajar periods—provided an effective foundation for spatial development, economic prosperity, and the consolidation of its urban status. Abundant water resources, the linear topography, and the close relationship with surrounding fields and gardens, together with communication corridors running parallel to the river and valley, led to the formation of the city’s unique physical structure and the establishment of functional elements such as the bazaar, squares, and religious centers along east–west axes. Chronologically, it was shown that during the pre-Islamic and Sasanian periods, settlements were primarily located in the surrounding areas and on the elevated fringes. Gradually, in the Islamic era—particularly during the Safavid period—the city’s spatial and communicational center became firmly established near the river. This spatial pattern reflected the natural setting and the functional needs of the traditional society of that time. The analysis of more recent developments indicates that the redirection of major communication routes and the consequent disruption of the city’s functional connection with its former strategic networks have resulted in economic decline, spatial disjunction within the historic fabric, and the diminishing role of the bazaar, placing the city on a path of uneven contemporary transformation. Given Narāq’s limited population and the modest pace of migration, no major transformation of the city’s structure has occurred; its historical evolution continues to be shaped largely by natural advantages and geographical factors. The research demonstrates that a thorough understanding of historical geography and the application of traditional models compatible with the natural setting and the socio-cultural context play a crucial role in preserving and enhancing the city’s historic structure, both now and in the future.