Parseh Journal of Archaeological Studies

Colorimetric Analysis, Chemical Composition, and Mineralogical Characterization of Ceramics from the Tule’i Archaeological Site, Khuzestan: A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Study of Archaeological Materials

Mohammad Hossein Azizi Kharanaghi

Tule’i Tepe, located in northern Khuzestan, is one of the key Neolithic sites on the Susiana Plain and has been dated to ca. 6200–5900 BCE based on previous studies. Although the site has been interpreted as a seasonal settlement or a mobile pastoralist camp with a relatively short occupation span, it is remarkably rich in material culture, particularly ceramics. Excavations at Tule’i have yielded a diverse ceramic assemblage, including both plain and painted Jaffar type pottery, as well as white and red wares decorated with various motifs, which show stylistic parallels with contemporary sites in Mesopotamia and southwestern Iran. Despite the significance of the site for studies of the Neolithic period and pastoralism, no comprehensive investigation has yet been conducted into the raw materials, production technology, or provenance of its pottery. The present study aims to address this gap by applying a multidisciplinary approach to the analysis of 41 ceramic samples from Tule’i Tepe. Three complementary analytical methods were employed: spectrophotometry for precise color measurement, portable X ray fluorescence (pXRF) for the determination of major and minor elements, and X ray diffraction (XRD) for mineralogical phase identification and the estimation of firing temperatures. Elemental analysis reveals that buff colored ceramic bodies contain the highest calcium (Ca) content, whereas red colored bodies show higher concentrations of iron (Fe) and aluminium (Al). Manganese (Mn) was identified as the primary coloring agent in the brownish decorations applied to the pottery. XRD analysis indicates the presence of minerals such as pyroxene and phlogopite, suggesting firing temperatures in the range of 600–700 °C. The presence of calcite in certain samples further indicates that firing temperatures remained below 800 °C, since calcite decomposes at higher temperatures. These findings suggest that Tule’i potters possessed considerable technical knowledge in controlling firing temperatures and selecting raw materials. A secondary aspect of this study compares the effectiveness of two color measurement methods: conventional visual comparison using the Munsell Soil Color Chart and instrumental analysis using reflectance spectrophotometry. The results indicate that the spectrophotometric method, owing to its higher resolution in distinguishing closely related colors (e.g., buff and light brown), can serve as an effective complement to non instrumental methods.

Early Stamp Seal Traditions in the Central Zagros (5000–2500 BCE): Continuity or Discontinuity?

Shokouh Khosravi

Stamp seals constitute one of the most enduring elements of administrative traditions in the Central Zagros of western Iran. However, the uneven archaeological record has generated ongoing debate regarding continuity and discontinuity in their use, particularly during the late fourth and early third millennia BCE, when securely stratified evidence remains limited. Drawing on newly published materials from Tepe Tyalineh, Godin Tepe, Chogha Maran, and Dehsavar, this study reassesses the evolution of stamp seal traditions between ca. 5000 and 2500 BCE within an updated regional chronological framework. By examining the style, iconography, and archaeological contexts of stamp seals and seal impressions from a comparative perspective, the article evaluates competing interpretations of the development of administrative practices in the Central Zagros. The evidence indicates that stamp seals and seal impressions were employed in the region from the Early Chalcolithic (5000–4600 BCE) through Late Chalcolithic phases 1–3 (4600–3700 BCE), during which they continued to develop locally while interacting with broader supra-regional networks. Although the archaeological record suggests an apparent gap during Late Chalcolithic phases 4–5 (3700–3100 BCE), stamp seal traditions persisted into the Early Bronze Age (3100–2500 BCE). While these traditions underwent significant transformation and were increasingly overshadowed by cylinder seals and supra-regional administrative systems during the later fourth millennium BCE, they nevertheless continued to play a role in local administrative practices in the Early Bronze Age. The analysis suggests that this apparent gap is more plausibly explained by biases in archaeological visibility, preservation, excavation coverage, and chronological resolution than by an actual interruption in the production and use of stamp seals. Overall, the study supports a model of relative continuity accompanied by stylistic, iconographic, and administrative transformation within the Central Zagros glyptic tradition. These findings underscore the active role of Central Zagros communities in the development of administrative practices and contribute to broader discussions of cultural continuity, interregional interaction, and the emergence of sociopolitical institutions in prehistoric Southwest Asia.

Beyond Accounting; Proto Elamite Tablet (MDP 17, 043) from Susa and the Layered Semantics of Registered Individuals

Rouhollah Yousefi Zoshk

This article examines an exceptional Proto-Elamite tablet from Susa (MDP 17, 043) that departs from standard economic accounting texts by listing seventeen named individuals rather than commodities or labor quotas. A central problem addressed here is the apparent inconsistency between gender-marked signs within nominal chains and the uniform or contrasting classifications that conclude those chains, as well as the summary count on the reverse of the tablet. Through a close structural and contextual analysis of the tablet, this study argues that the text operates with a two-level semantic system. Signs such as (M388) and (M124) occurring within nominal chains function at a descriptive level, indicating roles or statuses that are not reducible to biological gender. By contrast, the final combinations |M217+M388| and |M217+M124| assign individuals to institutional categories that determine their treatment as countable administrative units. The reverse of the tablet therefore records not gender or functional roles, but the total number of registered individuals classified according to their final institutional status. This layered semantic structure reveals a sophisticated administrative logic in Proto-Elamite record-keeping and highlights the social and institutional dimensions of individual registration beyond purely economic accounting.

Analysis of New Findings from Stratigraphic Excavations at Qaleh Yeri–Kuraim, Ardabil, Iran

Rahmat Abbasnejad Seresti

The archaeological sites of the Ardabil Plain provide essential evidence for understanding the cultural sequences of northwestern Iran and its interactions with the Iranian Plateau, the South Caucasus, and eastern Anatolia. Among these sites, the mound of Qaleh Yeri–Kuraim is of particular significance. This paper presents the results of the first season of stratigraphic excavations conducted in 2023, based on two test trenches. Test Trench I (TTI) was opened to establish a comprehensive cultural sequence at the site, while Test Trench II (TTII) targeted deposits associated with the Transcaucasian/Kura Araxes Early Bronze Age horizon. The excavations revealed substantial archaeological evidence, including dry stone and mudbrick architectural remains, industrial installations such as kilns, metallurgical evidence, and extensive ceramic assemblages. In TTI, a long and well defined stratigraphic sequence of approximately 14.6 meters was documented, containing successive and occasionally alternating layers with Islamic, historical, and Bronze Age pottery. This sequence represents one of the most continuous stratigraphic records in the eastern sector of northwestern Iran. TTII yielded significant evidence of metallurgical activities, including furnace remains, slag, copper ore fragments, ceramic molds, and crucibles, indicating metal smelting, refining, and production during the Early Bronze Age. Eco-factual evidence, including animal remains (primarily sheep and cattle) and plant remains (notably wheat and barley), reflects a subsistence economy based on mixed farming and animal husbandry. Special finds such as obsidian tools, spindle whorls, grinding stones, bone implements, and clay figurines demonstrate a range of domestic, economic, and symbolic activities from the Bronze Age through the historical and Islamic periods. In the absence of absolute dating, the site’s chronology currently relies on relative dating and ceramic typology. The results indicate long term occupation interrupted by two major hiatuses, likely linked to tectonic, environmental, and historical changes.

Investigating Cultural Transformations of the Bronze Age along the Alborz Mountain Range

mojtaba safari

The transition from the late 4th millennium BCE to the Bronze and Iron Ages along the northern and southern slopes of the Alborz Mountains is a major topic in archaeology, closely linked to the emergence of urbanism. Archaeological research indicates that with the end of Sialk III, many settlements, including those on the Qazvin Plain, collapsed. Similar processes occurred during the early 3rd millennium BCE in regions such as Kashan and Tehran. Although new settlements appeared in the Qazvin Plain during the later 3rd millennium BCE, the areas of Tehran, Qomrud, and Kashan were reoccupied only after a significant gap. In contrast, the northern flank of the Alborz displays a settlement history distinct from that of the southern side. While evidence for the influence of Sialk III in the north is limited, substantial occupation during the 3rd millennium BCE suggests divergent cultural developments on the two sides of the Alborz. This study draws on archaeological data from excavations and surveys in the northern and southern Alborz Mountains to examine Bronze Age (3rd millennium BCE) cultural developments. It highlights interaction networks linking the Gorgan Plain, southern Turkmenistan, Mazandaran, northeastern Iran, and the Central Plateau through exchanges of raw materials, technologies, and pottery traditions. Evidence from sites such as Tepe Hissar, Tureng Tepe, Ghal e-Ben, Ghal e-Kash, Tepe Kalar, and Qoli Darvish demonstrates cultural diversity, overlapping ceramic traditions, and continuous or discontinuous occupational sequences. The article emphasizes a contrast between the cultural hiatus of the Iranian Central Plateau and the flourishing development of the northern Alborz, particularly eastern Mazandaran and the Gorgan Plain, where regional interaction networks expanded. By contrast, the southern Alborz reflects migration, settlement disintegration, and environmental adaptation. Overall, the study identifies the Central Alborz as a key corridor for cultural interaction and interregional networks during the Bronze Age.

A Landscape Archaeological Approach to Sasanian Nomadic Settlements in Qasr e Shirin Region

Saba Gholami

The Qasr e Shirin region, located along the historic Khorasan trade route in western Iran, represents a significant cultural landscape that supported both sedentary agricultural communities and mobile pastoral groups during the Sasanian period. This study investigates the spatial organization, settlement patterns, and functional relationships of Sasanian-period sites within the Qasr e Shirin plain using a landscape archaeological approach that integrates Geographic Information Systems (GIS), remote sensing data, and archaeological survey evidence. Spatial analyses were conducted to examine the relationships between archaeological sites and environmental variables, including topography, land use, communication routes, water resources, and vegetation cover. The results indicate that the region was characterized by a dual settlement system consisting of a centralized administrative–agricultural complex and a network of dispersed pastoral settlements. Several sites display characteristics commonly associated with mobile pastoral lifeways, including ephemeral architectural remains, dry-stone constructions, extensive pottery scatters, and locations closely associated with seasonal grazing lands. GIS-based analyses further demonstrate that many of these settlements were located in elevated areas suitable for pastoral activities, whereas major administrative and agricultural centers were concentrated in the lower and more fertile sections of the plain. The distribution of sites, their proximity to communication routes, and their relationship to water resources suggest the presence of an integrated settlement network in which nomadic and sedentary communities interacted within a shared socio-economic landscape. This study argues that pastoral nomadic groups constituted an important component of the Sasanian cultural landscape of Qasr e Shirin and that their settlements formed part of a broader regional system closely connected to agricultural production, administrative authority, and long-distance communication networks. These findings contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of the diversity of settlement organization and human–environment interactions in the western Zagros during the Sasanian period.

The Defensive Settlements of the Darab Plain in the Sasanian Period

Bahar Rezai Baghbidi

Fars Province has been the cradle of two great Persian empires—the Achaemenid and the Sasanian—throughout Iranian history. The presence of significant historical monuments from these two periods clearly demonstrates the importance of this province. One such region within Fars is Darab, which was home to the city of Darabgerd during the Sasanian period. Despite the historical and archaeological significance of this area within Iran, the amount of research conducted there remains limited. Given the importance of this city in the Sasanian era, this article seeks to clarify the position of the city and the khurrah (or kūra, “administrative district”) of Darabgerd and to reconstruct its defensive structure. Based on recent archaeological surveys in the Darab Plain, the study aims to determine the role Darabgerd played within the Sasanian administrative and political structure and to assess the duration of its importance. Furthermore, considering the fortresses and military fortifications surrounding the city of Darabgerd, the study examines how the defensive and monitoring system of the city and the Darab Plain functioned. At first glance, the ruins of Darabgerd—which testify to its former grandeur—along with the presence of a rock relief, a large and significant mint that remained active beyond the Sasanian period into the early Islamic centuries, and the discovery of seals and clay sealings, all attest to the importance of this geographical area during the Sasanian and early Islamic periods. For this reason, the existence of a coherent defensive structure for both the city of Darabgerd and the Darab Plain was essential. Based on the identification of fourteen fortresses during archaeological surveys of the Darab Plain, this research adopts a descriptive–analytical approach, integrating archaeological evidence with historical sources in order to provide a clearer understanding of the defensive structure of the Darab Plain during the Sasanian period. The results indicate that the geography of the Darab Plain played a decisive role in the formation of the city of Darabgerd and its defensive system.

An Archaeological Study of the Ismaʿili Fortresses of Dāmḡān with Emphasis on Geographic Variables

Mahid Montazer zohouri

This study examines the relationship between geographic variables and the location, architecture, and long-term occupation of the Ismaʿili fortresses of Dāmḡān County in northeastern Iran. During the Islamic period, Dāmḡān formed an important sector of the Ismaʿili defensive network in the historical region of Qūmis, containing several major fortresses and outposts, including Gerdkūh, Mehrnegār, Mansūrkūh, Qaḷʿa-ye Doḵtar, Stīvhād, and Shīr. The primary objective of this research is to evaluate the extent to which environmental and geographic factors influenced the selection of fortress locations and the persistence of occupation at these sites. The study employs a descriptive–analytical methodology that combines archaeological field survey, historical and textual evidence, satellite imagery, and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) analysis. A range of environmental variables—including elevation, topography, slope, hydrology, climate, geology, mineral resources, vegetation, and communication routes—were examined and compared with the spatial distribution of the Ismaʿili fortifications. The results demonstrate that the distribution of the fortresses followed a deliberate and non-random pattern closely associated with strategic environmental conditions. Most sites were established on elevated terrain overlooking the Čašma-ye ʿAlī River corridor, major communication routes connected to the Great Khorasan Road (Silk Road), agriculturally productive plains, and mineral-resource zones. The fortresses also maintained visual interconnectivity and benefited from favorable defensive topography, reliable water supplies, and access to economic resources. Architectural evidence further indicates that these sites were adapted to local environmental conditions through the construction of cisterns, defensive walls, towers, and multi-level architectural complexes. The study concludes that geographic variables played a decisive role in the location, architectural organization, and long-term viability of the Ismaʿili fortresses of Dāmḡān. These fortifications constituted an integrated territorial network designed to support the military, economic, administrative, and religious objectives of the Nezārī Ismaʿili state in northern Iran.