Parseh Journal of Archaeological Studies

Lone Sequence of Red Slipped Potteries in the Prehistory of Western Iran: Investigation form Late Neolithic to the End of Chalcolithic Period

Sirvan Mohammadi Ghasrian

In the prehistory of western Iran, from the Late Neolithic to the end of the Chalcolithic period, there are some red-slipped potteries that continued to exist with minimal or even without any changes, despite the change in periods and the subsequent change in pottery styles and traditions. This has led to ambiguities and errors in distinguishing these types, and as a result, incorrect identification of the cultural periods of some sites of the Late Neolithic period, especially the Chalcolithic period. Are the red-slipped potteries of the Neolithic period to the end of the Chalcolithic period in western Iran really a special type of pottery that continued to exist without any changes despite the changes of cultural periods? What are the differences between the red-coated potteries of the Neolithic period and the Chalcolithic period? The failure of some researchers to distinguish the Red-Slipped potteries of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods creates the assumption that these types of pottery are not mutually exclusive. The present article, using an analytical-comparative method, attempts to answer the questions and hypotheses raised by closely examining the Red-Slipped potteries obtained from the excavations of some significant sites of the Late Neolithic and the Chalcolithic period in the western regions of Iran, such as Siahbid, Genail, Ghazanchi, Saha Chai Tepe, and Tepe Gheshlagh. The results of this research show that although there are undeniable similarities at first glance between the Red-Slipped potteries of the Late Neolithic period to the end of Chalcolithic, there are subtle differences in the form of the pottery, the degree of firing, temper, and the type and color of the coating, which a careful study will help distinguish the pottery of the mentioned periods from each other. The findings of this research show that the Red-Slipped potteries of the Late Neolithic period has burnished slip, a feature that is not seen in the later period, especially in the J and Dalma period. Also, in the late Chalcolithic period, in addition to changes in the color of the pottery’s coating, carved decorations are seen on the outer body of red pottery, which has not been reported for Red-Slipped potteries from previous periods.

Local Innovation and Craftsmanship: Technological Analysis (Petrography, XRD, XRF) of Late Chalcolithic Pottery from Tepe Ghabrestan, Qazvin Plain

Ahmad Aliyari

From the perspective of pottery production during the Chalcolithic period at Tepe Ghabrestan (ca. 4200–3100 BCE), the Qazvin Plain constitutes one of the most important archaeological sites in the north central Iranian Plateau. This study was conducted with the aim of identifying the technology of pottery manufacture and the mineral compositions present in the ceramics. The research is significant for sourcing the provenance of Ghabrestan pottery and assessing the level of craftsmanship among its producers. The central research question concerns the quality of production and whether the pottery was locally made or imported. In this study, twenty pottery sherds from excavations at Tepe Ghabrestan selected from the ceramic repository of the Institute of Archaeology, University of Tehran were analyzed using physical tests (porosity measurement, water absorption, and density), petrography, X ray diffraction (XRD), and X ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF), to perform elemental analysis and investigate the technological processes of pottery manufacture in the Qazvin Plain during the fourth millennium BCE. The results indicate the use of advanced and specialized production technology, reflecting the potters’ skill in controlling the firing process and selecting high quality raw materials. Petrographic examination of thin sections confirmed the presence of minerals characteristic of the region, including quartz, biotite, calcite, and augite. A major finding was evidence of the use of high speed potter’s wheels in producing Ghabrestan pottery, as shown by the uniform wall thickness and smooth surface finishes. Microscopic analysis confirmed the presence of inorganic tempers (mineral additives) incorporated to enhance mechanical properties and reduce cracking during firing. The clay used matches the geological composition of the Qazvin Plain, indicating local production of the pottery.

Identification of a New Sign for the Date Palm in Proto Elamite Texts and its Reflection on the Economic System of Susa

Khalil-Ollah Beik-Mohammad

The earliest evidence of human exploitation of the wild date palm in the Middle East dates back to the sixth and fifth millennia BCE. Despite the scarcity of archaeological data, it is commonly assumed that by the end of the Late Uruk period (ca. 3300–3100 BCE), the Sumerians founded the earliest date palm orchards. However, this hypothesis has thus far not been substantiated by scientifically verified and documented evidence, rendering the matter a subject of scholarly controversy. To date, since the Proto-Elamite script has not yet been fully deciphered, our knowledge of agricultural activities within Proto-Elamite society remains considerably limited. What has been learned so far regarding the structure of this society’s economic system is derived mainly from comparisons between signs found on Proto-Elamite clay tablets and comparable examples in Late Uruk Mesopotamian Proto-cuneiform tablets from the late fourth millennium BCE; signs that primarily pertain to labor activities, animal husbandry, and livestock products. This study outlines the phenotypic characteristics of the date palm that can be identified, and examines their similarities to known Proto-Elamite examples. The authors suggest signs representing date palms in the Proto-Elamite script and consider them as key resources for a better understanding of the subsistence economy of the Proto-Elamite period, an issue previously absent from the scholarly literature on this era. Employing a comparative approach, the article correlates the signs for palms in Proto-Elamite texts with contemporaneous and later Iranian, as well as Mesopotamian, visual motifs. By introducing these signs into the archaeological discourse of the Proto-Elamite period, the research enables a more accurate reconstruction of the economic system and assessment of the level of date-palm horticultural knowledge in southwestern Iran during the late fourth millennium BCE.

Shahdad and Tepe Yahya: Dual Perspectives on Trade and Cultural Interaction in the Third Millennium BCE in Eastern Iran; A Study of Economic and Cultural Structures Based on Archaeological Evidence

Mohammad Ghamari Fatideh

The study of cultural and economic interactions in the southeastern part of the Iranian Plateau during the third millennium BCE is a key issue for understanding the processes underlying the formation of interregional exchange networks and the emergence of early urban societies. The two major archaeological sites of Shahdad, located in the Takab Plain, and Tepe Yahya, in the Soghan Plain, occupied strategically significant positions along the communication routes linking Central Asia, the Indus Valley, and Mesopotamia, and therefore played distinct yet complementary roles within these networks. The main objective of this research is to examine the economic and cultural status of each site within the Bronze Age exchange system and to analyze the nature of their relationships with neighboring regions. The study aims to provide a comparative analytical approach to archaeological data in order to identify patterns of production, distribution, and transmission of cultural elements across southeastern Iran. The central research question focuses on how differences in communication routes affected the economic organization, production technologies, and cultural expressions of the two sites. The working hypothesis suggests that Shahdad, through its direct connections with the Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex (BMAC), functioned as an intermediary center between Central Asia and the Iranian Plateau. In contrast, Tepe Yahya, with its extensive chlorite vessel production and administrative evidence, such as Proto-Elamite tablets and Persian Gulf , type seals, served as a major industrial and commercial hub along the southern trade corridor. The methodology relies on a comparative and interdisciplinary analysis of archaeological data from both sites and their contemporaneous neighboring regions. The results indicate that the cultural and material differences between Shahdad and Tepe Yahya reflect their participation in two distinct yet interconnected exchange systems. Consequently, Shahdad embodies the direct influence of Central Asian cultural elements, while Tepe Yahya retained structural ties with the Elamite, Mesopotamian, and Indus worlds. These findings demonstrate that southeastern Iran during the third millennium BCE was a dynamic intersection of independent yet interconnected cultural systems.

Redefining the Middle Elamite Territorial Landscape in the Central Zagros Corridor: Four Archaeological Sites from Sahneh, Kermanshah

Saeed Broshan

The city of Sahneh, located 54 kilometers northeast of Kermanshah in the central Zagros passage, plays a crucial role as a strategic crossroads, linking the Iranian central plateau to Mesopotamia and connecting the internal plains of Kermanshah to Hamadan. Archaeological surveys in Sahneh County, conducted in 2003, employed the site survey method, whereby all ancient sites were studied in terms of their geographical location and settlement sequence. This approach provides the necessary data for interpreting the settlement history of the region. As a result of this field research, for the first time, two archaeological sites containing cultural materials from the Middle Elamite period were identified in this area. This discovery significantly extends the cultural domain of the Middle Elamite period in the Zagros toward the east and northeast, indicating that the influence of this civilization extended beyond its known centers in the southwestern provinces of Iran (such as Khuzestan, Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad, Fars, and Bushehr) as far as Kermanshah Province. Given the importance of these findings, further surveys were carried out in 2024 and 2025 to identify Middle Elamite sites in Sahneh. Following this research, two additional sites with Middle Elamite cultural materials were discovered. These findings not only confirm the existence of an active cultural-commercial corridor in this region but also highlight the necessity of revising cultural-geographical maps and historical developments of the Middle Elamite period in the central Zagros. Continued studies and targeted excavations at these sites can clarify the role of this region in the network of cultural interactions between the Iranian Plateau and Mesopotamia and are expected to lead to a fundamental reassessment of current perspectives on the history of this era.

Six Burials Attributed to the Neo-Elamite Period from Fort Mound (Tell-e Geser); Revisiting Details, Placement, and Chronology

Ghader Shirvani

The archaeological site of Tell-e Geser has long suffered from the absence of a comprehensive final excavation report and the fragmented publication of its materials. This problem is particularly evident in the interpretation of five burials discovered in the Fort Mound, which have been inconsistently dated and stratigraphically positioned in successive publications. Previous studies have attributed these burials broadly to the Neo-Elamite period, often assigning a single burial assemblage to multiple and widely separated chronological phases. This paper presents a critical reassessment of the burial data from the Fort Mound through a systematic re-examination of published excavation plans, stratigraphic sections, elevation records, and associated grave goods. Using a historical-archaeological methodology that combines stratigraphic reasoning with comparative typological analysis, each burial is evaluated independently rather than as part of a presumed homogeneous group. The results demonstrate that several inconsistencies in earlier interpretations stem from errors in plan orientation, misreading of elevation data, and the cumulative misinterpretation of archival materials. When these issues are corrected, the burials can be placed within a coherent stratigraphic sequence, revealing that they do not belong to a single chronological horizon. Instead, the evidence indicates multiple phases of burial activity spanning from the Middle Elamite to the late Neo-Elamite period, allowing the identification of six separate burials in a relatively regular chronological sequence that were previously conflated and misidentified as five. This reassessment not only clarifies the burial sequence at Tell-e Geser but also highlights the broader methodological risks of relying uncritically on legacy excavation data.

Analysis of the Technical Aspects and Microstructure of Copper Alloys in Ancient Iron Age Metallurgy in Sagzabad

Hamidreza Bakhshandehfard

The settlements of the Qazvin Plain, particularly at Tepe Qabrestan and Sagzabad, demonstrate a continuous sequence of metallurgical development in the prehistoric period of this region. The aim of the present study is to examine the functional aspects, manufacturing technology, chemical composition, microstructure, and alloy phases of metal artifacts recovered from the Iron Age levels of the Sagzabad site. In this context, the study aims to address key questions regarding the production processes and manufacturing techniques of the artifacts, the alloying practices employed, as well as the chemical composition and formation conditions of the identified corrosion products. To achieve these objectives, various analytical techniques were employed, including XRF for determining the chemical composition. The results indicated the presence of various alloys, including copper–arsenic, copper–antimony, tin bronze, and nearly pure copper. Metallographic analysis of two samples with preserved metallic cores revealed a cast structure with a distinct core, providing important information about the manufacturing techniques. In addition, SEM-EDS observations confirmed the presence of α-phase dendrites and the formation of γ-phases associated with copper–arsenic and copper–antimony alloys. Elemental analysis results indicate varied patterns in the use of copper–arsenic and copper–antimony alloys, suggesting that ancient metalworkers possessed considerable knowledge of how to achieve desirable mechanical properties in their metallic products. In addition, the identification of silver inclusions and sulfide intermetallic compounds within the microstructure allows hypotheses to be proposed regarding the types of ore sources used in the metal extraction process. The identified manufacturing technologies ranged from two-part mold casting to the production of chisels with both spiral and simple cross-sections. The analyzed artifacts comprise decorative, ornamental, and Functional objects. This typological and technological diversity provides a comprehensive view of Iron Age metallurgical practices at Tepe Sagzabad.

Apollo Daphnousios Sanctuary at Kiz Island

Mustafa Şahin

A fragment of a votive slab dedicated to the god Apollo was found during the 2023 season of the archaeological excavations at Kız Island in Apollonia a.R. The depiction of Apollo on the stele bears a close resemblance to the votive tablets found in 1991 at the site called Gavurkaya in the Akçapınar neighborhood on the south-eastern shore of Uluabat Lake, south of the city of Apollonia a.R. The inscriptions on the fully preserved Akçapınar votive plaques indicate that the offering was made for Apollo Daphnousios. The honouring stele among the finds points to a settlement named Daphnous Katoikia. The article discusses the location of the cult site of Apollo Daphnousios and the Daphnous Katoikia according to the finds from Kız Island. According to the similarity between the Akçapınar and Kız Island votive reliefs, the sanctuary of Apollo should be localized to Kız Island, whereas the Daphnous Katoikia should be located to the Gavurkaya in the Akçapınar neighborhoods. It is emphasized that the Seleucids were interested in the city of Apollonia a.R. because of Apollo’s cult, while the Daphnous Katoikia was a garrison settlement established against the Kingdom of Bithynia not far from the cult area.

Reassessment and Analysis of the Seleucid Tumulus at Naqqārechi Tepe, Nahavand (Based on the Qajar Period Exploratory Report and Two Seasons of Archaeological Excavations)

Behrouz Afkhami

The Naqqārechi Tepe, located on the southern outskirts of Nahavand, is among the surviving remains of the Seleucid period. Although it lacks visible surface evidence and recognizable cultural materials, a detailed account of its exploration during the Qajar era does exist. According to the report by Dr. Feuvrier and Moḥammad-Ḥasan Khan Eʿtemād-al-Salṭana (1309 AH), which accurately describes and illustrates the structural characteristics of the site and correctly identifies its historical period, the Naqqārechi Tepe may represent a tomb or tumulus belonging to one of the Seleucid commanders. A careful examination of this structure offers insights into the burial methods and funerary practices of Seleucid society. The Tepe was re-excavated in two archaeological seasons in 2019 and 2022 in order to reassess the buried structure and to critically re-read the Qajar-period descriptive account. This reconsideration aims to enhance our understanding of Seleucid architecture and cultural traditions in Iran. The main research questions, based on existing hypotheses, include: Does the buried tomb at Naqqārechi originate from Greek cultural traditions? How does the architectural design of the Tepe relate to similar Greek tumuli? Accordingly, the study proposes the hypothesis that the Naqqārechi Tepe is a tumulus, likely containing the burial of a Seleucid military commander or satrap of the region. Archaeological evidence and structural features obtained from the site, in comparison with similar Greek examples, suggest that this tomb reflects Seleucid cultural and architectural traditions. The research methodology is based on a combination of fieldwork and library studies. The description and analysis of the findings follow a historical-analytical approach and rely on the results of two excavation seasons at Naqqārechi. The findings indicate that the Naqqārechi Tepe exhibits all the key characteristics of Hellenic tumuli. The construction of a dedicated funerary monument for a single individual, along with the preparation of a carved stone sarcophagus, demonstrates the high social and political status of the deceased—status comparable to that of military commanders, warriors, or even successors of Alexander.

Velem: A New-found Parthian Cemetery in Mazandaran

Rahele Koulabadi

The site of Velem is located approximately 500m from the village of Velem, about 36km from Behshahr in the east of Mazandaran province. In 2020 during the construction of a road near the village, this cemetery site was accidentally discovered. In the following year, the rescue excavations were conducted, and burials from pre-Parthian and Parthian period were uncovered. In the first season of excavations twenty-six shaft burials from Parthian period were revealed. This study focuses on the Parthian burials. Since there is limited knowledge about the historical era of northern Iran, especially Mazandaran, the results of excavation at Velem are particularly significant. Furthermore, only a few Parthian sites have been identified in Mazandaran, and the historical knowledge of northern Iran during this period is also limited. In this article, with a descriptive-analytical approach, we try to study the findings from Velem in the first season of excavations to answer the following questions: 1) What is the structure of the graves and the burial methods at Velem? 2) Considering the prevalence of shaft burials in northern Iran, what is the origin and cause of the spread of this burial practice in this region? The field study results show that the Parthian funerary type identified at this site is shaft burial including a corridor, entrance, and burial space. Additionally, a comparative analysis of the graves at this site with similar examples in northern Iran and beyond suggests that this type of burial was common among nomadic peoples. Given the geographical location of northern Iran, it is very likely that this funerary tradition was penetrated to region by north-eastern nomadic population as the movement of a group of nomadic people of Dahae, or it was appeared as a result of the close interactions between nomadic and settled peoples.

A Historical Examination of the Causes and Archaeological Evidence for the Political-Cultural Relations between Iran and Yemen during the 4 to 7th Centuries CE

Hamid Zarei

The vast territorial expanse and unique geographical position of Sasanian Iran necessitated that major inter-civilizational trade and communication routes between East and West either traverse the Sasanian heartland or skirt its peripheries. This strategic geography played a pivotal role in advancing the Sasanian policy of expansionism and economic monopolization, as well as in facilitating commercial, cultural, and political interactions with regional and trans-regional polities. Within this context, examining the political-cultural relations between the Sasanians and ancient Yemen is of particular significance, given both territories’ possession of maritime fronts and their associated trade networks. Consequently, this research aims to investigate the nature and depth of the political and cultural relations between the Sasanians and Yemen, to identify the factors influencing the formation and evolution of these relations, and to assess the reciprocal impact of these relations on the historical developments of both lands. Furthermore, the role of archaeology in elucidating various dimensions of these relations will be considered. Through an analysis of historical and archaeological evidence, this study seeks to answer the following question: What factors led to the formation and perpetuation of political and cultural relations between the Sasanians and Yemen from the 4th to the 7th centuries CE? The findings indicate that hegemony over maritime trade routes played a central role in the interactions between Iran and Yemen during the Sasanian period. Moreover, the results of an examination of the artistic characteristics of specific archaeological finds from Yemen—namely, the Knight relief (from Dhofar), a female figure relief (from Dhofar), a fragment of a decorated textile depicting a Sasanian battle scene with Ethiopians (from Antinoë), and a carved four-faced capital (from the Qalʿa of Ḥasan al-ʿUr in Yemen)—reveal shared features with Sasanian art and corroborate the cultural-artistic influence of the Sasanians in the land of Yemen.

A Reassessment of Portable X-Ray Fluorescence (PXRF) Data for Timurid Silver Coins from the Avicenna Tomb Museum

Mahdi Hajivaliei

Timurid coinage functions as a material repository, mirroring the significant economic and political shifts characterizing the era, thereby offering crucial insights into the socio-economic structure of the Timurid Empire. This investigation critically examines a collection of Timurid numismatic artifacts housed in the Avicenna tomb Museum utilizing X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) spectroscopy. The meticulous re-evaluation of preliminary XRF spectroscopic data is paramount, particularly within the discipline of numismatics, as it constitutes a foundational requisite for mitigating analytical errors and augmenting the precision of interdisciplinary assessments. While XRF technology provides a non-destructive means for the precise determination of elemental composition within the coinage, a failure to implement rigorous monitoring and comprehensive data scrutiny risks introducing substantial historical misinterpretation and analytical uncertainty. This study addresses core research questions concerning the substantive value of re-analyzing and interpreting XRF spectral outputs, specifically concerning their utility in authenticity verification (counterfeit identification) and the delineation of underlying economic and cultural characteristics. The central hypothesis asserts that unprocessed XRF spectral data lacks inherent accuracy and necessitates expert-driven, in-depth analysis for conclusive artifact examination. Furthermore, the research underscores the necessity of detailed spectral profiling, acknowledges inherent technical complexities in data interpretation, and advocates for interdisciplinary methodologies to substantially enhance result validity. The findings conclusively demonstrate that a profound reinterpretation of XRF analytical data significantly advances the comprehension of material provenance, safeguards cultural heritage assets, and yields more nuanced understandings of Timurid economic governance.

Identification of the Waq Tree in the Luster Tiles of Takht Suleiman

Negar Kafili

Pottery has long been one of the key mediums for expressing cultural elements in Iran. The decorative motifs used in this art form are deeply rooted in Iranian culture, literature, religion, and political contexts, immortalized through the innovative creativity of Iranian artists. Among these motifs, the “Waq Tree” or “Talking Tree” stands out as one of the most prominent decorative elements, particularly gaining attention during the Ilkhanid period. This motif, which combines natural, imaginative, and mythical elements, was employed in the luster tiles of Takht-e Soleyman and reflects a profound connection between humans, nature, and animals. This study aims to address why this motif was prominently featured and executed by artists during the early Ilkhanid rule at Abaqa Khan’s palace in Takht-e Soleyman. It seeks to explore both visual representations of the examples and their associated cultural foundations. Using a descriptive, analytical, and historical approach, supported by imaging of historical samples, this research concludes that the painters of Takht-e Soleyman’s luster tiles depicted wild animals such as deer, gazelles, and rabbits instead of humans—who are typically central to illustrations of the Talking Tree. The choice of wild animals over human figures may reflect the nature-oriented tendencies of the Seljuks and Mongols. This selection also highlights the influence of Mongol culture on Iranian art—a culture that introduced animal anthropomorphism as a prominent element in literature and art. The Waq Tree, rooted in Iranian and global folklore, symbolizes a deep connection between humans, nature, and living beings. This mythological concept is intertwined with ideas such as the sanctity of nature and the bond between the human world and the natural world. The depiction of this motif on Takht-e Soleyman’s luster tiles demonstrates the artists’ efforts to convey these concepts, which were innovatively reimagined during the Ilkhanid era.

Classification and Typological Study of Safavid Lusterware and its Comparison with Blue-and-White Ceramics

Ahmmad Salehi Kakhki

Among the finest artistic productions of the Safavid period is lusterware, which continued the tradition that flourished during the Middle Islamic era. Despite brief references in some sources to the distinctive nature and form of Safavid lusterware, no independent and focused study has been conducted to date. Therefore, given the formal characteristics of existing lusterware, this study aims to classify them in detail to achieve a more comprehensive understanding of their forms and then to conduct a comparative analysis with blue-and-white ceramics. To achieve this goal, the following questions have been raised: “Into what formal categories can the lusterware of the Safavid period be classified?” and “In terms of form, how do Safavid lusterware correspond to, or compare with, their contemporary blue-and-white counterparts?” In this research, data collection has been carried out through library and field methods, and the study has proceeded with a descriptive-comparative-analytical approach. The statistical population comprises 69 Safavid lusterware pieces and 40 blue-and-white vessels, which, in turn, represent 486 lusterwares and 106 blue-and-white ceramics selected as representative samples of each type based on their formal characteristics. The results of the typological study of these vessels indicate that the lusterware comprises 17 groups, which fall into two main categories: Open forms, such as dishes, bowls, and cups (Piyaleh); and closed forms, such as ewers, bottles, and pitchers. Moreover, although the two pottery types exhibit considerable typological similarity, the lusterware demonstrates greater formal diversity, whereas the blue-and-white ceramics are relatively finer in execution and somewhat larger in scale.

Analysis of Old Deeds and Manuscripts of Isfahan as Historical and Cultural Sources from the Safavid to Early Pahlavi Era

Majid Badiee Gavarti

Among the most significant historical and ancient sources in Iran are local handwritten deeds and manuscripts. Through their examination and study, valuable historical information can be obtained. These documents contain detailed accounts of geographical, economic, social, cultural heritage elements, customary laws, and traditional customs. Today, they serve as valuable and primary historical resources. In this context, the province of Isfahan stands out as one of the richest regions in terms of historical depth and the tradition of deed writing in Iran’s local and traditional history. Notably, the handwritten deeds related to the Gourt neighborhood in eastern Isfahan (Eastern Jay) have not yet been studied from historical, archaeological, or codicological perspectives. This research aims to present the writing style, structure, and valuable historical content of these documents, introduce them by their original and traditional names, and highlight their importance as precise historical and archaeological sources. It also seeks to showcase the artistic features used in their illustration and decoration as part of the region’s art history. The central question of this study is: How can we extract historical and artistic information from handwritten deeds and evaluate them as credible historical sources? To achieve this goal, three historical manuscripts from the Gourt neighborhood in eastern Isfahan have been scientifically and analytically examined: Deed of the Dove Tower at Darb Deh (Aziz Tower), Deed of the Dove Tower of Agha Hossein, (New Tower) Deed of the Gourt Farm Qanat. These manuscripts belong to a private local collection, preserved as family heritage, and have all been registered as movable historical artifacts by the Cultural Heritage Organization of Isfahan.