Parseh Journal of Archaeological Studies

Origins and Odyssey: A Comprehensive Study of Camel Fighting’s Evolution and Expansion

Xiaoqiang Mi

The depiction of camel fighting in rock art to express certain rituals of human can be traced back to the late Paleolithic period and is believed to have originated in present-day northwestern Kazakhstan. After the domestication of Bactrian camels, depictions of camel fighting developed a relatively standardized format, primarily presenting paired camels engaged in aggressive biting matches. This motif of camel fighting may have originated in the Karate and Baikonur regions of Kazakhstan during the Bronze Age. Due to geographical proximity, the custom of camel fighting was introduced to the Sarmatians in the Ural steppes early on, and through the Sarmatians, it spread to the Huns (Xiongnu) in the north and the Qiemo people in Xinjiang, China, and later to Kangju. The camel fighting depicted in the Sulaek petroglyphs in the Minusinsk Basin should be attributed to the Kyrgyz, and its origin is likely the Huns. The fighting camels in the Loulan mural tombs may have been inherited from Qiemo or originated from the Huns. The camel fighting motif in Persian miniature paintings first emerged during the Timurid period in the latter half of the 15th century CE. The Timurid Empire was founded by Timur, a noble from the Barlas tribe historically affiliated with Mongol aristocratic lineages. This Central Asian polity maintained profound Mongol cultural influences. Notably, camel fighting had already been practiced as courtly entertainment in the Yuan Dynasty (established by the Mongols) as early as the first half of the 14th century CE. This chronology demonstrates that the Mongols long upheld camel fighting rituals, and the motif in Persian miniatures was transmitted westward through Mongol cultural and political influence.

The Evolution of Curved Swords: A Comparative Study of China and Iran

Manouchehr Moshtagh Khorasani

This article delves into the intricate evolution of swords and sabers in China and Iran, shedding light on the craftsmanship that shaped these formidable weapons. The article begins by exploring the genesis and progression of sword shapes in China, focusing on the distinct forms that emerged over time. It particularly highlights the stark differences between the straight-edged jian and the various types of dao, which are characterized by their single-edged design. The discourse then shifts to the Persian context, unraveling the true essence of the term ‘shamshir’. Contrary to the common misconception held by numerous scholars and collectors in the West, ‘shamshir’ is not confined to highly curved sabers. Instead, it is a broad term used in Persian to denote any kind of sword, irrespective of its shape. The article further delves into the historical period when curved swords began to gain prominence in both China and Iran. This exploration not only provides a deeper understanding of the evolution of these weapons but also offers insights into the cultural and historical contexts that influenced their development.

The Form and Significance of the Portrait of the King’s Donors in the Grottoes of Kucha-Using the Image of tiptoeing as a Case Study

Xiaoqing Qi

The preserved 6-7th century portraits of royal supporters from the Kucha Caves in Xinjiang show a “patterned” costume and appearance, especially the “standing on tiptoe” posture and the pictorial structure of multiple figures standing side by side, which have a strong connection with Iranian and Central Asian art. The unique “standing on tiptoe” style of the Kucha Grottoes mural depicts a donor pattern that is neither found in the painting and sculpture of Dunhuang or other regions of China, nor seen in Gandhara reliefs, Parthian art, or Near Eastern art of the Parthian period. However, is frequently seen in painting and sculpture from Iran to Central Asia between the 3rd and 7th centuries AD. The origin of the art of Iran and Central Asia the forms of expression are related to the construction of royal identity, religious rituals, and the viewing habits and aesthetic concepts of the people of Kucha. The small number of inscriptions preserved in the Kucha Caves on the donor’s figures indicate that these Kucha kings were real people, and it is highly likely that the painters had met them. However, the way the feet of the figures are drawn is not realistic, but rather stylized, creating a perfect visual pattern that transcends ordinary reality, indicating that the painters were aiming to present all the Kucha kings as an “idealized” manner. The pictorial pattern of “standing on tiptoe” posture influenced by Iranian Sasanian and Central Asian Sogdian art is evident.

Why References to Japan are Lacking in Persian Classic Texts in Comparison with China and Silla

Daryoosh Akbarzadeh

Relations between Iran and the East Asia date back to ancient times. These interactions ranged in function and scale from the initial development of overland trade routes by hopeful merchants, all the way to the political entanglements of ruling dynasties. These relations can be traced through material culture but also through their incorporation into written texts. Although, China (Čīn) and Korea (Silla) had been referenced in relation to the Zoroastrian heroes of the resurrection, Japan did not have any position in this regard according to Persian texts. Additionally, the name China was known for the Middle Persian languages such as Sogdian, Manichean and Zoroastrian Pahlavi texts, those texts have never mentioned the name of Japan. Although, many scholarly works have been published on Iran-Japan historical relations, the author believes that some aspects of these relations need to be reviewed. Zoroastrian late texts describe Čīnestān while it is hard to explain the term included Japan and Silla, but this information can be seen frequently in the Early Islamic Periods widely about Silla. According to the Persian texts, Čīn and Silla were two “holy toponyms” where the final (Zoroastrian) savior would come to rescue Iran from the Arabs. Surprisingly heroes-kings like Jamshid, Faridun, Faranak, Zahhak, Garshasb, Sām were entangled with these two toponyms according to Persian texts. Clearly Japan appeared less frequently as a toponym in Persian classic texts. The author believes that believe “refraining to give support to Sasanian princes” should serve as a significant factor in dropping Japan’s name by Persian texts. In this article I will try to answer “why references to Japan are lacking in Persian classic texts?”

Polytheism Idolatry Worship of Kushan-Iranian Faith based on Coins and others Documents

Wei Yuan

This paper stresses on the polytheistic idolatry worship of the Kushans and Iranian faith as evidenced by coins, relics and documents particularly in the field of numismatics, and historical data. This study can draw the following conclusions, the roots of Dayuezhi Iranian faith’s idolatry worship can be traced back to a combination of orthodox Zoroastrianism and indigenous Iranian faith during the Dayuezhi period. In this period, Dayuezhi used the image of lion to be a symbol of the Iranian goddess Nana on coin. The Kushan culture was influenced by Greek religious art, and later by Buddhist statuary art, but the current archaeological materials have not yet found evidence of existing Iranian deities relics and documents during the early decades of the reign of the Kushan emperors such as Kujula Kadphises, Wima Taktu, and Wima Kadpphises; In fact, polytheistic idolatry worship within the Iranian faith became fully established and flourished during the reigns of Kaniska and Huvishka. In this period, the Iranian faith deities Nana, Mirro, Mao, Orlagno, Athsho, Ardoxsho, Manaobago, Pharro, Lrooaspo, Mozdooano and Oado appear on Kaniska’s coins, and the Iranian faith deities Ardoxsho, Mirro, Mao, Nana, Shaoreo, Athsho, Oanindo, Oaxsho, Mozdooano, Sarapis, Rishti, Teiro, Ahura Mazda, Ashaixsho, Lrooaspo, Yamsho and Oado appear on Huvishka’s coins. Kushano-Sasanian coins revealed information about the rise of Iranian orthodox Zoroastrianism under Sasanian Persia which had conquered the region. The practice of polytheistic idolatry in Iranian faith was gradually declining during the late Kushan and Kushano-Sasanian periods. This decline continued into the Kidara Kushan period as evidenced by the coins.

Reflections of Sasanian Elements in Central Asian Buddhist Art: A Case Study of the Śarīra Reliquary Box from Kucha

Yaghoub Mohammadifar

Manifestations of the Sasanian period’s artistic influence are abundantly evident in the eastern territories of this empire through archaeological discoveries and surviving artifacts. Among these, the designs on a box known as a śarīra reliquary, discovered in a Buddhist temple within the Subashi site in Kucha city, Xinjiang Province, western China, illustrate a fusion of Sasanian, Buddhist, and local artistic styles. 1 Accordingly, the present study aims to introduce and analyze the motifs of the aforementioned box, thereby addressing the following questions: 1. Which Iranian-Sasanian religious beliefs are reflected in the motifs used on the box known as the śarīra reliquary? 2. Based on the motifs of the śarīra box, what are the primary designs and themes that constitute the artistic influence of Sasanian-era Iran on the regions east of the Iranian plateau? Based on the proposed hypotheses, the motifs employed in the śarīra box reflect the most prominent religious and symbolic elements of the Sasanian period; elements whose examples can be observed throughout the Sasanian realm, Central Asia, and China, particularly along the Silk Road trade route. Sasanian art and religious beliefs found their way into China through trade exchanges, the gifting of royal presents, and the migration of Sogdians and other Iranian-speaking peoples, influencing the artistic works of those regions. The Kucha region, due to its specific geographical location in the Tarim Basin along the Silk Road in western China, was considered one of the most frequented and caravan-laden cities. Consequently, this region witnessed the formation of Buddhist temples and grottoes, an increase in the arrival of caravans and travelers, and, subsequently, the presence of artists, musicians, and other social strata of that era. Kucha gradually transformed into a city where music held a high status, and various Iranian musical instruments, such as the vertical harp and the barbat (lute), were widely played. As a result, Kucha can be considered one of the best places to study the influence of Sasanian art on Chinese art. Despite the significance of the topic, no independent research has yet been conducted on the Sasanian-Iranian elements present in the motifs of this box. The present research is theoretical in nature, conducted with an analytical-comparative approach, and its data collection was carried out through library research and the utilization of available resources.

The Influence and Development of Sasanian Culture in the Tang Dynasty (Focusing on the Cultural Materials from the subsidiary Tombs at Qianling)

Ge Yifang

The Sasanian Empire (second Persian Empire) established strong communication with China during the Tang Dynasty, reaching its peak. Following the Arab conquest, the cultural integration between the Tang Dynasty and the Persian aristocracy continued to flourish. Tang emperors, Li Zhi and Wu Zetian, provided assistances to Persian king Peroz and his son Narsi, with Peroz eventually choosing to settle in Chang’an in his later years. According to the records of Chang’an Zhi Tu by (Li Haowen, 2013: 49) the stone statue of Persian king Peroz is among the sixty-one statues at Qianling Mausoleum which is the Emperor Gaozong Li Zhi, and Empress Wu Zetian’s resting place; It means that the Qianling Mausoleum holds a significant connection to the Sasanian prince, Peroz; Furthermore, the cultural materials obtained from three subsidiary tombs (the tombs of Li Zhi and Wu Zetian’s sons, grandsons, granddaughters, as well as those of the officials buried around them) at Qianling can be closely interpreted as being related to Persian culture. This article explores the influence of Sasanian Persian culture on the aristocratic culture of the Tang Dynasty as well as the adaptation of Persian customs by the officials of the Tang Dynasty. This influence is evidenced by the cultural materials unearthed from the Qianling subsidiary tombs.

New Perspectives on Sogdian Societies in North China

Morteza Hessari

Since the Achaemenid period, Iranians, as rulers of part of the Silk Road, played a critical role in maintaining the security and infrastructure of this trade network. The Sogdians, as representatives of the eastern Iranian cultural sphere, held a particularly influential role in trade and intercultural communications from the mid-third century to the eighth century CE. Beyond their activities as merchants along the Silk Road, the Sogdians developed a form of “Silk Peace Diplomacy,” establishing a sustained presence in Chinese territories. As one of the prominent eastern Iranian groups, Sogdian merchants promoted a diplomacy of coexistence along the Silk Road. In particular, findings from northern China over the past two decades highlight the tangible and diplomatic dimensions of the Sogdian presence, emphasizing their pivotal role in what may be termed the “Silk Peace.” Archaeological excavations in northern China-notably the discovery of Sogdian family tombs-although initially reported through preliminary studies, reveal important aspects of Sogdian inscriptions, artistic expressions, spiritual beliefs, and especially mural paintings. These findings provide invaluable insight into the Sogdians’ integration into Chinese society. The primary objective of this research is to introduce the newly uncovered Sogdian cultural materials in northern China to the broader scholarly community concerned with Iranian cultural history, and to illustrate the significance of the Sogdians’ presence within their new geographical context in China. The research findings demonstrate the evolution of Sogdian communities in northern China from initially closed, self-contained groups to more open societies engaging in dynamic cultural interactions with the Chinese. It appears that the Sogdians initially migrated to China as families of artists, craftsmen, and merchants. Over time, they integrated into Chinese society while maintaining distinct aspects of their Iranian heritage, thus shaping an enduring pattern of cultural exchange between the Sogdian and Chinese civilizations.

Individual End in Zoroastrian Eschatology Four Panels from a Sogdian Tomb in Chang’an

Sonia Mirzaie

Abstract
In 2003, the discovery of a Sogdian tomb in the historic city of Chang’an opened a new horizon for researchers studying cultural exchanges and Zoroastrian eschatological beliefs. This tomb, belonging to Wirkak, a leader of a trade caravan, and his wife, Wiyusi, contains eleven stone panels, four of which directly depict concepts related to individual end in Zoroastrian eschatology. These panels illustrate the fate of the soul after death, providing a pictorial interpretation of Zoroastrian teachings within a Sino-Sogdian context. Despite previous studies, the details of these panels have not been comprehensively analyzed from a Zoroastrian eschatological perspective, and some existing interpretations require reassessment. Employing a text-image analysis approach, this article examines the eighth to the eleventh panels of Wirkak’s tomb and, by drawing on the Avesta and Middle Persian Zoroastrian texts, seeks to elucidate the visual representations of eschatological concepts in this artwork.

Court Networks and the Diffusion of Manichaeism from Iran to China

Paul C. Dilley

In this article, I build on my earlier work, which places Manichaean missionary activity within a larger network of court activity from the Roman Empire to Tang China, in which ambassadors, as well as wandering sages and ritual specialists, spread knowledge about cultural difference. These interactions usually took part between neighboring principalities, but they were also enmeshed in the gradual spread eastward of Iranian Manichaeism across Central Asia. Various Manichaean accounts highlight the importance of teaching “wisdom” in the bid for support from local rulers. According to the Cologne Mani Codex, Mani meets an unnamed king, instructing him in wisdom, the Manichaean commandments, as well as the “two natures”. What fragmentary evidence we possess for the spread of Manichaeism to China suggests that it, too, proceeded largely through the activity of traveling sages across court networks.

The Hephthalites in China and Their Roles in East-West Exchanges

Xiaoyan Qi

The rise and migration of the Hephthalites left a significant impact on the exchange of East-West civilizations, and the empire they established was one of the inevitable problems in the study of Silk Road. The period from the end of 5th century to the early 6th century was the zenith of Hephthalite Empire when the alliance between Hephthalites and Sasanians was established and the Hephthalites expanded to Tarim Basin and southward to North-West India. The Hephthalite Empire played an important intermediary role in the interaction of East-West civilizations, ensuring the stable development of the Silk Road in the 5th and 6th centuries and laying the foundation for the prosperity of the Silk Road during the Sui and Tang Dynasties. The Chinese Northern and Southern Dynasties observed the Hephthalites in China and noted their interactions with different ethnic groups, such as the Han Chinese, Sogdians and Persians. Chinese written sources such as the Book of Wei, the Book of Zhou (Zhoushu 周书), the Book of Liang (Liangshu, 梁书), the History of Northern Dynasties (Beishi, 北史), the Book of Sui (Suishu, 隋书), the New Book of Tang (Xintangshu, 新唐书) as well as Comprehensive Statutes (Tongdian, 通典), provide substantial information about the Hephthalites. With the advancement of archaeological discoveries in recent years, the Hephthalite coins and Persian coins have also become crucial numismatic evidence for understanding the Hephthalite activities in medieval China and their relations with different ethnic groups in China and along the Silk Road.

Exploring the History of Aq-Qalih in Khorasan: Insights from the Ilkhanid’s Periodic Travels and the Urban Structures of the Yuan Era

Shahin Garakani Dashteh

The historical fortress of Aq-Qalih, a large and little-known structure in the Juvayn Plain of northern Khorasan, is tentatively attributed to the Mongol Ilkhanid period based on limited prior studies. However, extant Ilkhanid -period documents offer no confirmation of its existence. Therefore, the hypothesis of Ilkhanid construction relies solely on archaeological evidence and the dated inscription of the Aq-Qalih Mosque. This research seeks to establish the significance of Aq-Qalih as a midway settlement along Ilkhanid travel routes in northern Khorasan, utilizing historical documents and GIS analysis. Further, by comparing Aq-Qalih’s structure with contemporaneous structures in Mongol-influenced regions of China and Iran, this study assesses the hypothesis of Ilkhanid construction. The findings indicate Aq-Qalih’s strategic location along major Ilkhanid travel routes, with the Ilkhans’ and their successors’ annual visits increasing the likelihood of a midway settlement. Moreover, structural comparisons with Chinese examples like Shangdu, Daidu, and Yingchang, as well as Sultaniyya in Iran, reveal significant similarities, bolstering the hypothesis of Ilkhanid-era construction.