Parseh Journal of Archaeological Studies

The First Pre-Pottery Neolithic Occupations in the Kohgilouyeh Region: Evidence from Tap-e Bibizolaikhaei

Ahmad Azadi

Abstract
The Zagros region and its hilly flanks, particularly its central parts in the provinces such as Kermanshah, Lorestan and Ilam have provided most evidences related to the Neolithic period and the transition from hunting and gathering to farming and herding. However, our understanding of the Neolithization process in the southern part of the Zagros mountains remains limited and poorly understood to this day. The excavation of Tap-e Bibizolaikhaei is the first Neolithic excavated site in the Kohgilouyeh region, providing new archaeological data. The primary objective of our research was to explore various aspects of the Neolithic way of life at the site, including recovering animal and plant remains to reconstruct economic practices and ancient ecology in the early Holocene period. Another important aim was to obtain samples for C14 dating to establish a reliable chronology for the site. To address these goals, we sought answers to significant research questions include: is the settlement of Bibizolikhaei exclusively a pre-pottery Neolithic settlement? What is the type of the settlement and how long did it last?? To what extent was the economic practices of Bibizolaikhaei people based on hunting and gathering and how much was it based on farming and herding? Based on the stone tools assemblage and the absence of contemporaneous pottery, we infer that the site belongs to the pre- pottery Neolithic period. Regarding the ecological features of the site, we documented that the subsistence practices of its settlers involved a combination of gathering plant seeds and wild grains, as well as hunting small mammals and engaging in small-scale fishing. This article employs a descriptive-analytical research method wherein we describe and analyze the excavated findings within their context. Additionally, the C14 results confirm that the site was occupied during the first half of 8th millennium BC.
Keywords: Tap-e Bibizolaikhaei, Pre-Pottery Neolithic, Neolithization, Kohgilouyeh.

Introduction
In the Iranian plateau, the most important evidence regarding transition from hunting and gathering to farming and herding comes from the Central Zagros and its hilly flanks, i.e.in the regions such as Kermanshah, Lorestan and Ilam provinces (e.g. Braidwood et al., 1961; Smith 1976; 1990; Mortensen, 1972; Meldegaard et al., 1963; Matthews et al., 2013; Riehl et al., 2015; Darabi et al., 2011). Our understanding of the Neolithic period in the southwestern parts of the Zagros region has been significantly enhanced through excavations at various sites, including of Ali Kosh (Hole et al., 1969), Choghsefied (Hole, 1977) and Chogha Bonout (Alizadeh, 2003). Except for few sites with possible finding from this period, excavations at Seyedeh Khtoun Cave in Arsanjan (Tsuneki and Mirzaye, 2012) and joint Iranian/Japanese project in framework of Tang-e Bolaghi recue excavations, have reveled evidence of this period in the southern Zagros. Moreover, excavations at Tap-e Rahmatabad (Azizi et al., 2014), Ghasre Ahmad (Kamjan et al., 2018) and Tol-e Sangi (Alizadeh, 2021: 4) are recent research in the region. Several reported sites from Chehar Mohal and Bakhtyari (Zagarell, 1982; Daujat et al., 2016) including Ghale Rostam provide information about this period. In addition to sites of other periods, archaeological survey of the Kohgilouyeh region led to identification of a number of Neolithic period sites that shows the importance of the region for the studies on the Neolithic. The primary objective of our research was to explore various aspects of the Neolithic way of life at the site, including recovering animal and plant remains to reconstruct economic practices and ancient ecology in the early Holocene period. Another important aim was to obtain samples for C14 dating to establish a reliable chronology for the site. To address these goals, we sought answers to significant research questions include: is the settlement of Bibizolikhaei exclusively a pre-pottery Neolithic settlement? What is the type of the settlement and how long did it last? To what extent was the economic practices of Bibizolaikhaei people based on hunting and gathering and how much was it based on farming and herding? Based on the stone tools assemblage and the absence of contemporaneous pottery, we infer that the site belongs to the pre- pottery Neolithic period. Regarding the ecological features of the site, we documented that the subsistence practices of its settlers involved a combination of gathering plant seeds and wild grains, as well as hunting small mammals and engaging in small-scale fishing. This article employs a descriptive-analytical research method wherein we describe and analyze the excavated findings within their context. Additionally, the C14 results confirm that the site was occupied during the first half of 8th millennium BC. Considering the geological landscape features of the region and its ecological potentials, it is plausible to hypothesize that the occupation of the site at Tap-e Bibizolaikhaei may have been seasonal in nature.

Discussion
The excavation of Bibizolaikhaei revealed three layers and a number of features. Although we could not reach to the virgin soil, remains of pebble floor, stone oven, a possible wall, animal and botanical remains and lithics were the important finds of our excavation. Among them, remains of a pebble floor is the most significant. Apparently, the use of pebble floors was common in the mountainous landscape of Zagros during the Neolithic period (e.g., Darabi et al., 2011: 256; Braidwood et al., 1983: fig 66). Lithics recovered from the excavation are based on production of bladelets which are the same Zagros Mlefatian tradition. All deposits were floated, however, there is no clear evidence of domesticated plants; this might be due to the revealed space and small scale of the excavation. However, the presence of stone mortars, pestles, grinding slabs and pounders that were recovered during the excavation and on the surface of the site shows that processing of plant seeds had an important role for the subsistence of the settlers of the site. Remains of animal bones such as domesticated goats and wild sheep indicates the presence of these animals in the diet of the settlers of the site. Due to the absence of Neolithic pottery in the excavation and on surface of the site, it is possible to infer that the site belongs to the pre- pottery Neolithic period. According to the results of C14 samples, it is certain that the site has been inhabited during the first half of the 8th millennium BC. For environmental reasons, Kohgilouyeh was the region where, until two decades ago, a significant portion of its residents relied on a semi-sedentary lifestyle. Therefore, until further studies are conducted, we can presume that this subsistence strategy has a longstanding history and should be taken into account when considering the Neolithic settlers of Bibizolaikhaei.

Conclusion
Bibizolaikhaei is a pre-pottery Neolithic site and representative of the Neolithic sites of the Kohgilouyeh region. The C14 results indicate that the site was inhabited at least since the first half of 8th millennium BC. Considering the importance of the Neolithic period in the evolution process of the human societies, the need of continuing research at Bibizolaikhaei to find out various aspects of probably the oldest settlement of this part of Zagros appear obvious. By continuing investigations at this site, we expect to be able to understand the evolutionary trajectories of this part of Zagros is relation to the other parts of this mountainous range.
Now with increased awareness from central Zagros (i.e. the site of Shaikhiabad), southern Zagros (including the sites of Tange Bolaghi and Rahmatabad) and western borders of the Zagros (i.e. the site of Choghagolan), it is necessary to explore and understand the Neolithic societies and human adaptations that existed in the regions such as Kohgilouyeh with its diverse landscape during the Holocene period. Bibizolaikhaei provides relevant information regarding this less understood region.

Over Urbanization, A Factor in the Late Bronze Age Crisis in Eastern Iran

Mohammad Ghamari Fatideh

Abstract
One of the facts that can be seen in the archaeological contexts of the late Bronze Age in the abandonment or excessive reduction of the enclosures. At the end of the Bronze Age, many sites and settlements in the Iranian Plateau and outside the Iranian Plateau collapsed suddenly and unexpectedly, or the growing process of these societies has stopped. Researchers have considered several factor such as floods, earthquakes, immigration of newly arrived ethnic groups, etc. for this event, to these factors we can also add the effect of factors such as over urbanization, which has not been addressed much. As a result of over urbanization, challenges such as; Regional thermal changes, destruction of habitat and biodiversity and ecosystem as accelerating factors in the crises of this period could further worsen the situation. The result of this research show that after the increase in population in urban centers due to the lack of administrative planning to control the conditions caused by dense urbanization and as a result the disruption on environmental order and natural balance, the society has tried to restore the natural conditions as a stable system this attempt to return to the balance has been manifested in various ways, such as the decision to leave large settlements and move to peripheral and peripheral areas with sufficient food and water resources. The evidence of this event can be seen in areas such as Merv, Northern and Southern Balkh, and Doab areas in eastern Sind; in some cases, the crisis in the societies has increased and it has appeared in the form of newer problems such as famine and epidemics, inter regional conflicts and such things, which have led to the collapse of societies.
Keywords: Bronze Age crisis, Late Bronze, Over Urbanization, Eastern Iran, The Decline of Settlements and Civilization.

Introduction
Over urbanization or excessive urbanization is generally used in cases where the urban population has grown unplanned and beyond the capacity of the environment and city administration, which causes the transformation and sometimes degeneration of urban communities (see Sovani, 1964). Therefore, the increase in the number of the population and the lack of environmental resources in the administration and organization of the urban population could act as a factor to disrupt the path of the Bronze Age societies. The decline of settlements and civilizations at the end of the Bronze Age is very important, and the first major collapses of the prehistoric era took place at this time, which occurred widely and in large areas of the old land. The Bronze Age in the archaeological literature refers to a period when societies gradually more from rural to more complex or urban and create trans-regional connections. Obviously, what is expected is the continuation of the development and progress of societies towards the emergence of larger and more complex civilization and states, which reached their peak of prosperity during the middle Bronze Age (see Tosi, 1976: 168). But what happened in the late Bronze Age is the abandonment of sites and depopulation of a large number of them, which can be seen as a chronological break in many Ancient sites? The evidence indicates an event during which large settlements such as Shahr-I Sokhta (Tosi, 1968). Mohenjodaro (Wheeler, 1968), Harappa (Wheeler, 1968), Altin Tepe (Masson, 1981), collapsed, although some small settlements such as Tekem Tepe (Kohl, 1984) continued to exist without any interruption. The concentration of population in urban areas and the impossibility of providing in frastructure needs in urban life due to the occurrence of over urbanization had led to disorder in social structures and population decline in Mohenjodaro and Harappa settlements. If the elites of the society do not manage or solve the problems caused by excessive urbanization, difficult conditions will arise and the society will probably solve the problem or become a problem in the form of a self-organizing system. The evidence shows that in some settlements such as Mohenjodaro, Harappa and Altin Tepe, people decided to leave the large settlements and settled in peripheral areas, and this caused the settlements to become uninhabited in the late Bronze Age.

Identified Traces
Urbanization, which was actually a cultural and social revolution, appeared sometime between the end of the fourth millennium and the beginning of the third millennium bc in western Asia, Egypt and Mesopotamia (Childe, 2019:1). But at the end of the Bronze Age in a wide area of the east, especially the southeast region of Iran and even beyond the current borders of Iran, such as; Central Asia and the Indus valley, many large settlements such as Shahr-I Sokhta (Tosi, 1968), Tepe Hesar (Schmidt, 1937; Dyson, 1989), Namazga (Kohl, 1981) area have declined and shrunk excessively. There are several theories about the crisis of the late Bronze Age, such as the invasion of the Aryan tribes (Girshman, 1954), disease (Robbins Schug et al., 2013), famine and earthquakes (Nur, 2009), etc., but since this discussion is about societies with an advanced level of technology and in constant relations with are their peripheral areas. The factor of excessive urbanization can be added to the above. Rapid urban growth will have consequences for the urban society. Such as the lack and absence of drinking water, urban heat island effects, unpredictable rainfalls, and increasing demand due to population growth cause environ mental destruction and air pollution. For example, in the Indus valley in period IIIC, due to extra-regional trade and large inward migrations, the previous organized settlement pattern was disrupted. The houses in the main areas of the city were thrown into the streets and then at the end of the Harappan phase, the population density decreased and some of them were concentrated in the main areas of the city and the other part moved to the east. In Turkmenistan, even though the archaeological data indicates a decrease in the Kopedagh area, no settlements are abandoned in Atak and other areas, especially Merv and Balkh.

Conclusion
In general, based on archaeological findings, the cities were formed from the old Bronze Age and reached their peak of prosperity during the middle Bronze Age. But at the end of the third millennium and the beginning of the second millennium B.C. the evidence indicates that the sites were excessively shrunk and empty of inhabitants, or the collapse of large settlements. This could have been caused by over urbanization on the basis that whenever the society’s population grows beyond the environmental resources and facilities necessary to organize people, it can create crises for urban societies. Crises such as; the increase in urban rainfall and temperature, the increase in urban waste, the lack of drinking water sources and the destruction of the environment for human well-being in large societies with high population. With the increase of urban population and the lack of resources to organize people it leads to an increase in crime, marginalization and disorder in urban organization, and when the political rulers cannot solve or manage the created problems, the people of the society left the cities and went to the marginal and peripheral areas with stable food and water resources, such as Merv, Northern and Southern Balkh, to continue their lives.

The Function of Bevelled-Rim Bowls: Insights from the Warka Vase

Rouhollah Yousefi Zoshk

Abstract
This article delves into the enduring enigma of bevelled-rim bowls, ubiquitous ceramic artifacts of the late 4th millennium BCE Near East, particularly within the Uruk sphere of influence. These crudely manufactured vessels, found in vast quantities across Mesopotamia and the Iranian plateau, have sparked extensive scholarly debate regarding their function. While utilitarian hypotheses, such as their use as ration bowls or baking molds, have been proposed, this article explores the compelling evidence for their ritualistic significance. Through an examination of archaeological context, iconography, and textual evidence, the article highlights the potential role of bevelled-rim bowls in religious ceremonies, offerings, and sacred meals. Ultimately, bevelled-rim bowls serve as a testament to the intricate interplay between the practical and the sacred in the Uruk period, underscoring the ongoing quest to decipher the complexities of the ancient Near East. This article explores the many different uses of bevelled-rim bowls. It was determined that these bowls were used for a variety of purposes, including everything from measuring food to baking to using the bowls for ritualistic purposes. The Warka Vase was examined and it was discovered that the depictions on the vase were very similar to the bowls. This was used as evidence that bowls were used for more than just utilitarian purposes.
Keywords:

Introduction
The late 4th millennium BCE, a period marked by the burgeoning complexities of urban life and the dawn of writing, witnessed the widespread dissemination of a distinctive ceramic form: the bevelled-rim bowl. These crudely fashioned, hand-made vessels, characterized by their thick walls and flared, out-turned rims, have captivated archaeologists for decades, serving as a key marker of the late Uruk period in Mesopotamia and its far-reaching influence across the Iranian plateau and beyond. While their origins are firmly rooted in the Mesopotamian heartland, their ubiquitous presence across a vast geographical expanse, coupled with a perplexing array of proposed functions, continues to fuel scholarly debate. The sheer volume of bevelled-rim bowls discovered at archaeological sites, coupled with their standardized, albeit roughly executed, form, suggests a mass-produced item. This ubiquity, however, belies the complexity of their potential roles within ancient societies. Beyond their widespread distribution, the lack of definitive contextual evidence has led to a plethora of interpretations, ranging from mundane utilitarian functions to more nuanced ritualistic applications. Among the most prominent theories is the “ration bowl” hypothesis, which proposes that these vessels were used for the distribution of staple goods, such as barley or grain, to workers within large-scale economic units. This interpretation is bolstered by the sheer quantity of bowls found at administrative centers and the association of the bowls with the archaic cuneiform sign NINDA, meaning bread. However, this interpretation is not without its critics, who point to the variability in bowl sizes and the lack of direct evidence for their use in ration distribution. Another prevalent theory posits that bevelled-rim bowls served as baking moulds. This idea draws parallels with similar ceramic forms found in contemporary Egyptian contexts, suggesting that the bowls were used to bake flatbreads or cakes. The rough, porous texture of the bowls would have been suitable for baking, and the out-turned rim could have facilitated the removal of the baked product. Yet, conclusive evidence, like the presence of charred remains within the bowls, remains elusive. Beyond these practical interpretations, a growing body of scholarship has explored the potential ritualistic significance of bevelled-rim bowls. The discovery of these bowls within temple precincts, alongside other ritual paraphernalia, has led some scholars to suggest that they were used as offering vessels or for the distribution of sacred meals. This hypothesis is further supported by the depiction of similar bowls on the Warka Vase, a monumental alabaster vessel adorned with intricate scenes of ritual processions and offerings.

Discussion
The Warka Vase, a masterpiece of Uruk period art, provides a compelling visual link between bevelled-rim bowls and ritual practices. The vase’s elaborate narrative, depicting a procession of individuals carrying offerings to a female deity, features individuals holding vessels that closely resemble bevelled-rim bowls. This visual association suggests that these bowls were not merely utilitarian objects but also held symbolic value within the religious sphere. Further bolstering the ritual interpretation is the discovery of bevelled-rim bowls in association with sealings and ideograms that appear to depict religious ceremonies. The archaic cuneiform sign GU, meaning “to eat,” is often depicted as a human head with a bowl, reinforcing the association of these vessels with food consumption in a potentially ritualistic context. The discovery of a cylindrical seal in Tell Billah, portraying a religious ceremony with similar vessels being transported, suggests a strong connection between the bowls and organized ritualistic actions. The prevalence of religious beliefs in the Mesopotamian society of the late 4th millennium BCE cannot be overstated. The pantheon of deities, the elaborate temple complexes, and the sophisticated system of religious rituals all point to a culture deeply invested in the spiritual realm. In this context, it is plausible to consider that bevelled-rim bowls, given their widespread distribution and association with temple contexts, played a significant role in religious practices. The iconography of the era, particularly the representations of Inanna, a prominent goddess of fertility and abundance, offers further insights. The symbolic association of Inanna with sheep, cattle, and grain, alluding to agricultural prosperity, aligns with the potential use of bevelled-rim bowls in offering ceremonies. The myth of Inanna and Dumuzi, which celebrates the sacred marriage and the cyclical renewal of life, also provides a narrative context for the use of these bowls in ritual feasts and offerings. The sheer volume of bevelled-rim bowls found at major Uruk sites, such as Uruk itself, Nippur, and Ur, suggests that they were not merely incidental objects but rather integral components of the social and economic fabric of these urban centers. Their presence in significant quantities at temple sites like the Eanna precinct in Uruk further underscores their potential connection to religious activities. The geographical distribution of bevelled-rim bowls also offers clues to their function. While their primary concentration is in Mesopotamia, their presence across the Iranian plateau, from Susa to Tepe Yahya, indicates that their use extended beyond the core Uruk region. This wide dispersal might indicate the spread of Uruk cultural practices, including ritualistic uses, or simply reflect the adoption of a practical container for various purposes. The debate surrounding the function of bevelled-rim bowls highlights the challenges of interpreting archaeological evidence. While the “ration bowl” and “baking mould” hypotheses offer plausible explanations for their widespread use, the ritual interpretation adds a layer of complexity and nuance to our understanding of these enigmatic vessels. However, despite the compelling arguments for a ritualistic function, concrete evidence remains elusive. The lack of detailed contextual information, such as the analysis of residues within the bowls or the precise stratigraphic association with other ritual objects, hinders definitive conclusions. Moreover, the inherent ambiguity of archaeological interpretation allows for multiple, often conflicting, explanations. The challenge lies in reconciling the seemingly mundane, utilitarian nature of the bowls with their potential symbolic and ritual significance. It is possible that these vessels served multiple functions, adapting to the diverse needs of the societies that produced and used them. They might have been used for both practical purposes, such as measuring rations or baking bread, and for ritualistic purposes, such as offering food to the gods or participating in sacred meals.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the bevelled-rim bowls remain a testament to the complexity and ambiguity of archaeological interpretation. While their exact function continues to be debated, the evidence suggests that they were more than just simple containers. They were objects that bridged the gap between the mundane and the sacred, serving as both practical tools and symbolic instruments within the dynamic societies of the Uruk period. The enduring fascination with these enigmatic vessels underscores the importance of continued research and the ongoing quest to unravel the mysteries of the ancient Near East. Future research, employing advanced analytical techniques, such as residue analysis and micro-archaeological studies, may shed further light on the function of bevelled-rim bowls. By examining the contents of the bowls and their precise contextual associations, we may be able to discern their specific uses and gain a more nuanced understanding of their role in the social, economic, and religious life of the late 4th millennium BCE Near East.

The Encounter of Narratology and Archaeology (Analysis of Narrative Methods of Jiroft Civilization Artifacts Based on Franz Wickhoff`s Typological System of Visual Narrative)

Ahad Variji

Abstract
Reading ancient artifacts is the first step after the act of excavation. Therefore, dealing with ancient objects as a fundamental pillar of archaeological science, especially paying attention to methodological issues for the analysis of historical artifacts, is essential. In other words, the need to use new methodological capacities, with emphasis on the relationship between visual media and ancient artifacts as valuable sources of information, forms the focus of this discussion. In this regard, in the last three decades, visual narratology has also been considered as a newly emerging method in the history of contemporary art, along with other interdisciplinary fields, for analyzing the meanings of visual texts and for a deeper understanding of discovered ancient documents. Visual narratology emerged from the First Vienna School. Its theoretical foundations for the creation of art history, regardless of aesthetic judgment, also developed an analytical method by which All Kind of cultural creations can be read. The main goal of the present study is also to identify the Different methods through which the creators of these works have created narratives and transmitted meanings, through the three indicators of character, scene and movement. Therefore, using Franz Wickhoff`s typological system of visual narrative in the Vienna School, the basic types of narrative were examined on 6 study samples of the ancient Jiroft civilization. As a result, after examining the frequency or maximum of the most frequent types among the visual samples of the Jiroft civilization, it was shown that the visual narrative patterns in this ancient civilization still follow the scope of Wickhoff typological system. Finally, with the help of typological analyses, the studied samples are formatted into a table according to Wickhoff`s Isolated, continuous and Complementary.
Keywords: Visual Narratology, Archaeological Artifact, Jiroft Civilization, Wickhoff’s Typological System of Narrative.

Introduction
Narratology is one of the most important methods of textual analysis, first applied in the study of verbal-linguistic media. From the perspective of linguistic narratologists, a narrative is defined as a story that follows a chronological order and consists of a sequence of interconnected events with a beginning, middle, and end.
The groundwork for the encounter between narratology and archaeology in the present era was laid with the help of Propp’s studies-recognized as the first modern narratological approaches-on Russian folktales, emphasizing recurring motifs within the literary genre. In other words, his formalist-structuralist method, by identifying repetitive and transformative patterns in narrative elements, was primarily developed in storytelling traditions and subsequently introduced archaeologists and anthropologists to this field. Moreover, in 1980, linguistic narratologists, recognizing the significance of non-verbal media, prioritized the study of visual texts as a rich source of knowledge. Consequently, although the historical background of visual narrative studies traces back to art history, archaeology, and the examination of various forms of narrative art in ancient Greece and Rome... (Horvath, 2010)
However, following the fields of archaeology and art history, narratologists began studying visual narratives. This marked the first time in the history of linguistic narratology that, beyond literature and cinema, narrative theory extended into the realm of visual arts, including sculpture, figurative representation, relief carvings, inscriptions, and more. Consequently, since the 1980s, visual narrative studies have become a common ground for various disciplines, particularly art history, narratology, archaeology, anthropology, epistemology, semiotics, and others.
The undeniable potential of visual narrative, alongside linguistic media and the communicative/cognitive nature of visual documents, led research in this field toward interdisciplinary approaches. Overall, it can be stated that contemporary studies on visual narratives widely agree that visual elements are essential for establishing a form of visual communication and constructing the meaning of an artwork. This consensus has contributed to the emergence of a new interdisciplinary branch known as visual narratology over the past two decades.
In this regard, archaeologists such as Landau (1991) and Terrell (1990) explored narratives related to human evolution and prehistoric stories from the Pacific region. As a result, they primarily examined the perspectives of key narrative roles in the form of protagonists who undergo arduous trials, overcome significant obstacles, or return to their homeland (Pluciennik, 1999: 654).

Discussion
In this research, an attempt is made to introduce a new approach to the study of visual narratives by drawing on recent methodological frameworks in the field of visual culture studies across different civilizations-with a particular focus on reading narratives or stories within images. In addition to presenting an innovative method for analyzing visual narratives, this study aims to establish more objective and precise criteria for interpreting visual texts and ultimately uncovering their themes, messages, or implicit meanings. This is achieved through the examination of three key narrative components: the actor (agent), the representational space, and all directional or movement-evoking elements within the image.
From this perspective, the proposed method significantly differs from other image and symbol analysis approaches, particularly iconography and semiotics. Overall, these components distinguish the present research methodologically from previous studies on the cultural heritage of Jiroft, which have primarily relied on semiotic and iconographic analyses of motifs-rather than exploring the narrativity of images. This distinction is considered one of the study’s key innovations.

Conclusion
Overall, the focus of this study was on the fundamental doctrine of the Vienna School, with a particular emphasis on Franz Wickhoff. In this regard, pictorial narration is inherently meaningful, generates cultural cognition, and is considered within a historical context. In other words, in line with Wickhoff’s teachings, an effort was made to examine seemingly indistinct events and ambiguous prehistoric incidents within overarching and universal metanarratives, which often reflect grand social transformations in various forms.
The case studies of this research (see: Table 1) exhibit characteristics that demonstrate how the examination of the typological diversity of pictorial narration goes beyond textual analysis and delves into deeper subtextual and interpretative layers. Thus, every representational narrative is situated within a macro-narrative framework, which may encompass an archaeological site, a cultural civilization, or an evolutionary process transitioning from one historical era to another. In other words, the semantic appeal among the narrative samples of this research results from the interplay of the powerful poles of myth, nature, and culture. Therefore, the narrative logic of these artworks emerges through a permutation-based relationship and continuous movement between the cycle of natural life, the mythological realm, and cultural existence, centered around the main character or actors of the scene.
In this ongoing struggle between the worlds of myth, nature, and culture, the dominant force within the scene is sometimes influenced by the mythological pole, manifesting in the figure of a king-hero (Figs. 4 & 6) such as Gilgamesh and Enkidu, who reflect the grand ideals of their culture and society. At other times, with nature prevailing over mythology, domesticated animals in the grasslands (Fig. s 5 and 7) are depicted as integral to their local ecosystem. In this way, pictorial narratives serve as tangible representations of the collective unconscious of these ancient civilizations, embodying their aspirations, desires, beliefs, and cultural and mythological needs through the artifacts and objects of their time. In this sense, beyond their decorative and aesthetic aspects, narrative motifs also reflect the worldview of their creators regarding ways of living, the geographical environment, and the prevalent cultural values and mythological concepts of that era.
As Plato described in Timaeus, referring to nature as “the womb of all change”, the encounter between humans and nature in Jiroft civilization represents an ongoing process of transformation resulting from the clash of opposing forces in nature and the stabilizing power of human reason. Accordingly, the case studies of this research illustrate how historical human interactions with nature are reflected in the uninterrupted transition of pictorial actors through the three essential stages of existence—imitation and assimilation (myth), contact and interaction (nature/ecosystem), and desire and confrontation (culture) through various cultural-narrative patterns of the time.
Thus, in their evolutionary and transformative journey (human-bull, human-lion, or human-scorpion), humans inevitably find themselves in a continuous struggle with the unknown and unstable forces of nature. Consistent with Frazer (1926), the urgent biological and existential necessity of direct contact with nature compelled ancient people to perceive themselves as defenseless against the uncontrollable forces of the natural world. In such a situation, they had to rely on collective intelligence to devise solutions for coping with the fragmented natural world and its creatures. On one hand, in response to existential questions and in facing the unknown forces of nature, as well as to alleviate their inner anxieties, they entered the mythological phase, passively and fearfully absorbing these uncontrollable forces into their collective unconscious. However, in the natural phase, in order to meet their biological and vital needs, they gradually became familiar with the enigmatic surrounding nature through constant contact, discovering its hidden forces. Finally, in the cultural phase-marked by the formation of urban societies and local states-they externalized the absorbed mythological forces and applied their accumulated experiential and cognitive knowledge of the surrounding nature to heroic actions aimed at establishing and defending their civilization and territorial boundaries against external threats. In other words, the passive and imitative human within the mythological realm transforms into a coexisting inhabitant of the natural order and ultimately into people with symbolic cultural identities, engaging in heroic acts. This heroic movement in ancient cultural and civilizational life frequently manifests in the figure of a king-hero.
Consequently, emphasizing the maximal narrative quality in images, six pictorial types were purposefully selected from 144 pictorial samples of the Jiroft civilization. Upon analyzing the sample volume, it was demonstrated that Wickhoff’s three fundamental narrative patterns comprehensively encompass the various pictorial narratives (related to Jiroft civilization’s chlorite stone artifacts) under three general categories: “human narratives”, “grassland narratives” and “confrontational animal narratives”. In this way, the endless cycle of substitutions and transformations in the biological, mythological, and cultural systems of humans was structured under Wickhoff’s visual narratology framework in the form of three models: continuous, isolated, and Complementary narratives.
The isolated models in Figs. 8 & 9 revealed that by suspending movement, avoiding sequential framing, and focusing on the climax of the story in a single scene, they effectively captured the timeless and placeless mythological world in a tangible manner. In the continuous models, it was observed how, through the repetition of the hero figure within the scene (Fig. 5), the sequence of events could be followed until the hero’s fate was determined. The artist successfully arranged minor actions around the main actors (Figs. 6 & 7) to vividly depict the continuity of natural life in Jiroft civilization. Finally, by segmenting events into successive frames (Fig. 4), it was shown how an artist could convey the essence of a story in a cinematic manner.

Investigation on the Parthian Sites of Northern basin of Qezel-Uzan in the Area of Abbar and Darram, Tarom County

Farzad Mafi

Abstract
In recent decades, our knowledge about the Parthian period has increased significantly thanks to the valuable field researches mainly in the form of archaeological surveys. The target area of this research, Abbar and Darram districts, in Tarom Olia of Zanjan province, is also one of the areas where no information was available about its condition in the Parthian period. This research study 12 Parthian sites of the area, in order to answer questions such as the quality and quantity of settlements, The influence of climatic and environmental factors on the formation of sites, the characteristics of cultural materials and especially the typology of pottery, the differences and commonalities with the surrounding areas and the reconstruction of the historical and cultural image of the region in the Parthian period. The Parthian sites of the region were studied based on factors such as height, land slope, soil quality, and access to water sources and communication routes. Studying of Parthian potteries, including three groups of decorated, common and fillide, indicate that the pottery tradition of the region, in addition to having local characteristics, was influenced by the pottery traditions of the north, northwest and West of Iran, which indicates inter-regional connections and the role of Tarom region as a bridge between different parts of North-West Iran. The Parthian settlements were mainly formed near permanent water sources such as Ghezel-Ozan River and in low-slope, low-altitude and fertile lands. Due to the hydrological condition of the Tarom Valley and the abundance of water resources, all the Parthian sites access to sufficient water. According to the settlement pattern, it seems that the majority of the population of the area had a livelihood based on agriculture and gardening, in which the Darram Castle with an area of about 20 hectares played a key role in the area.
Keywords: Tarom Olia, Abbar, Darram, Archaeological Survey, Parthian Settlements.

Introduction
Zanjan province has long been one of the important areas for the formation of human sites in the northwestern part of Iran’s plateau due to its climatic conditions and geographical location as a communication corridor between the central plateau and the northwest of Iran. Tarom County, located in the northernmost part of Zanjan province, has the potential for the formation and relative development of human settlements. A season of archaeological survey in the area of Abbar and Darram in Upper Tarom County identified 12 Parthian sites based mainly on the typology of pottery, including Pavehrud, Dam, Foqlake 1, Foqlake 2, Emamzadeh, Vaznehsar, Darram, Oghlanqalasi, Govarqale 1, Govarqale 2, Govarqale 3, and Kuhkan Olya. This research, conducted through field and library studies, aims to investigate the Parthian sites in the region, exploring questions about the quantity and quality of Parthian sites, the influence of climatic and environmental factors on their formation, the typology of cultural materials (mainly pottery), and their differences and commonalities with surrounding areas. The Parthian pottery from the studied sites can be classified into three groups: decorated pottery, plain pottery, and Fillide pottery.

Environmental effects on formation of the Tarom Parthian sites
1. Water sources: In the Tarom region, along with the permanent flow of the Qezel-Uzan River, there are rich underground water sources, such as wells, canals, springs, tributaries, seasonal rivers, and channels, providing favorable conditions for the formation of human societies. In the studied area, nine sites are located less than 500 meters from rivers like Sherfan-Rud, Abbar, Nokian, Qeshlaq-Rud, and Vaznehsar, while two sites are situated less than 10 meters from Qezel-Uzan itself. Due to the hydrological conditions of the valley and the abundance of water sources, all sites in Abbar and Darram had access to sufficient water and were located near permanent water sources.
2. Hypsometry: The Parthian settlements in this area are located at different heights above sea level. Oghlanqalasi, at an altitude of 408 meters, and Dam, at an altitude of 1288 meters, are the lowest and highest Parthian sites in the study area, respectively. Overall, the Parthian sites in the region can be categorized into two groups based on altitude: those below 700 meters and those above 900 meters. There are 9 Parthian sites (75%) below 700 meters and only three sites (25%) above 900 meters. The first group is situated in valleys between mountains near rivers, while the second group is located on highland slopes.
3. Land slope: There appears to be a direct correlation between the elevation of Parthian sites in Abbar and Darram and the slope of the land. All nine Parthian sites in Abbar and Darram below 700 meters have slopes of less than 10 degrees, indicating that 75% of the sites are on low slopes and altitudes. Among the sites in Abbar and Darram, only 3 sites (25%) between 900 and 1300 meters have relatively steep slopes of 20 to 30 degrees. The slopes of the sites vary in direction, mainly north to south and west to east, highlighting the importance of sunlight in the formation of Parthian settlements in Abbar and Darram.
4. Land use: All Parthian sites below 700 meters with slopes less than 10% have fertile soil suitable for agriculture. The largest lowland and alluvial lands in the survey area are located on the northern edge of Qezel-Uzan, in the eastern and northwestern parts of Darram Castle. These lands have good access to water from the Siah Rud River to the north and the Ghezel Uzan River to the west.
5. Communication ways: Due to the topography of the area, communication routes have remained relatively unchanged over different periods, limited to inter-mountain valleys along rivers. The Parthian sites in this region are mainly aligned in a northwest-southeast direction along Qezel-Uzan or in valleys of sub-rivers perpendicular to the Qezel-Uzan River valley. The main modern communication road in the region follows a similar route along Qezl-Ozen. The proximity of Parthian sites to modern roads suggests that ancient roads likely followed a similar path.

Conclusion
In total, the sites located at an altitude of less than 700 meters, with an average size of 3.3 hectares, have good conditions for agricultural and horticultural activities due to easy access to water sources, good soil, and suitable slope. Additionally, sites located at a height of more than 900 meters above sea level, with an average area of 0.79 hectares, are situated in the middle of valleys and on sloping surfaces near tributary rivers, with rich pastures and water resources, making them favorable for animal husbandry activities. Moreover, the size and density of Parthian sites in the lower areas are much greater than in the higher areas. Considering that the size and density of the sites indicate the population living in the region, it appears from the results of our study that the dominant population of Abbar and Darram in the Parthian period had a subsistence economy based on agriculture and horticulture.
Among the identified Parthian sites, the site of Darram Castle, with an area of about 20 hectares, is a massive fortification structure on the northern bank of Qezel-Uzan. Given some features of Darram Castle such as its large size, fortification, easy access to permanent water sources, and access to agricultural land, it seems that Darram Castle played a key role throughout the study region in the last centuries of the Parthian period. The results of the study indicate that the pottery tradition in the region, in addition to being influenced by internal and local factors, was influenced by neighboring regions in the north, northwest, and west of Iran.

Characterization of Ancient Mortars of Ojan Castle in Bostanabad County Belong to Sajuk-Ilkhanid Era

Mehdi Razani

Abstract
This article discusses the structural analysis of ancient mortars used in Ojai’s Castle, which belongs to the Ilkhanid period in Bostanabad County, East Azerbaijan Province. Various methods, including field studies for documentation, sampling, and laboratory analysis using X-ray diffraction (XRD) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF), were utilized to investigate the structural and physicochemical properties of the ancient mortars. For this purpose, ten mortar samples were collected from different sections of the outer walls of the castle, which were excavated in the past five years, and their dominant phases and compositions were identified using XRD and XRF. The results show that the composition of the mortars used in the castle is significantly similar. Contrary to existing assumptions based on the use of lime-based mortars in cold regions and stone structures, the mortars in Ojan Castle are composed of gypsum and quartz-based high-purity gypsum mortars. These mortars were used for structural reinforcement and, especially, for enhancing their compressive strength. Based on these findings, this study can serve as a reference for future research on the structural analysis of ancient mortars to restore the castle.
Keywords: Characterization, Seljuks-Ilkhanid, Ojan Castle, Mortar, XRD, XRF.

Introduction
Historical architecture exemplifies the dynamic progression and development of knowledge, structure, recognition, and production of diverse materials. Mortars, as significant architectural elements, play a crucial role in this evolution. Remarkably, numerous mortars have retained their structural attributes for centuries. These historical mortars represent cultural accomplishments, exhibiting distinct properties influenced by raw materials, technological methods, and their manufacturing and utilization processes. The analysis of historical mortar’s composition serves as a valuable tool in understanding the construction techniques and technological advancements employed in the past. By studying the structure, composition, and processing methods of traditional mortars, we can make informed decisions regarding their conservation, restoration, reproduction, and identification of potentially damaging factors in historical buildings. Furthermore, mineralogical and chemical analysis of mortars provides essential insights into their setting characteristics, mineral grading, and compound quantities, offering a comprehensive understanding of their properties. Concerning the specific topic of this research, which is related to the historical and cultural mortars of the Seljuk-Ilkhanid era we can say undoubtedly, the Ilkhanid era can be considered one of the brilliant periods in the history of urban planning in Iran and another beginning in the emergence of a new style in creating and developing urban spaces. This style, which is known as the “Azeri style”, hastened the creation of royal cities such as Ghazaniyeh and Soltanieh and the strategic mother city of Tabriz, which is the manifestation of the ideals and urban planning ideas of the Mughal Ilkhanid. It has remained unstudied until today. In this research, the structural analysis and identification of the mortar composition of the historical castle of Ojan (figure1-3), related to the Seljuk-Ilkhanate period, will be examined and studied. Until now, five seasons of scientific archeological excavations have been carried out in the historical castle of Ojan from 2018 to 2022, and the results show remarkable stone architecture and architectural decoration such as Muqarnas made by gypsum, tiles, shaped stones, and various objects. Belongings include copper coins, pieces of pottery from the Seljuk-Ilkhanate period, glass, metal nails, etc. (figure4-7 & table 1)
The most important research questions regarding the mortars used in Ojan Castle are: 1. What types of mortars are present in Ojan Ilkhanate castle? 2. What are the fundamental characteristics of the mortar used in Ojan Castle? The research methodology for this study consists of three main components: 1. Gathering documentary information through library studies. 2. Conducted field studies, including sampling from the historic Ojan Castle and documenting the current condition of the site to understand the nature of the building under investigation. 3. Performed laboratory studies, specifically analyzing samples taken from the outer wall of the castle. This analysis includes structural analysis and qualitative examination of mortar materials.

Materials and Methods
In this study, after examining the explored sections of the Ojan castle, mapping of the structure was carried out. Based on the current condition of the walls and the materials used in the construction (Fig. 8), 10 random representative samples were taken from different sections of the castle, including the outer parts of the main walls and the areas between the main materials. The samples were selected from different parts of the walls to ensure sufficient dispersion. The sampling method involved separating layers from both intact and deteriorated sections. Fig. 9 and indicates the locations where the samples were taken. Based on field observations, the mortar layers, especially in shallower and more exposed areas, had weak and powdery structural conditions. However, at depths greater than 20mm from the wall surface, the mortar exhibited better strength compared to the surface layers. The color of the mortar was mostly white, with some areas having a slight grayish tint, and no traces of plant remains or other components were observed. In the next stage, images and visual information related to each sample were recorded on-site. Descriptions of the visual characteristics of the samples, along with images and sampling locations, were collected and documented in Table 2. All samples were powdered and passed through a 200-mesh sieve. They were then barcoded and sent to the laboratory for XRF (table 3, 4, figure10) and XRD (table 5, Fig. 11) analysis. The samples were barcoded using the following format: “Ojan Castle, 2020 (OC20), Tranche number (T), Sample code (S)”. For example, a sample would be labeled OC20-T16S01.

Discussion
With the aim of structural analysis of the mortar used in the stone walls of Ojan Castle belonging to the Seljuk-Ilkhanate historical period in Bostanabad city, 10 samples of mortar were selected from different parts of the outer walls. Based on the results of the experiments (XRD, XRF), the use of mortar with the leading and dominant phase of gypsum is used in all samples, and also all types of phases with silicate structure and phases in the soil can be seen in all samples. To construct this mortar, high-purity gypsum and sand were used. Approximately %8 of the mortar composition consisted of other components, mainly soil elements such as Muscovite, Albite, Salts, etc. The presence of these materials and phases is natural due to the inherent porosity of gypsum mortar and the fact that this architectural structure has been buried in the soil for several centuries.

Conclusion
The use of semi-fired, semi-pounded gypsum, with the addition of sand as an intermediate mortar between stones, as well as for pointing in various sections of the outer walls of Ojan Castle, indicates the use of processed gypsum mortar in cold regions such as Bostanabad in the northwest of the country. As we know, in the field of conservation and restoration of historical architecture, the use of authentic materials that correspond to the original substance is crucial for preserving the authenticity, historical value, and cultural significance of ancient artifacts.
Based on this principle, the use of traditionally processed gypsum for constructing traditional mortar in the conservation of this ancient site can be considered significant in terms of maintaining authenticity. Considering recent seasons of excavation and access inside the castle, conducting similar tests on samples of interior plaster can reveal the differences between the mortars used on the outer and inner surfaces. This information can provide insights for proposing restoration and conservation procedures for the site.

A Comparative Comparison of Two Zavareh and Gonabad Jame Mosques Based on the Analysis of the Spatial and Functional Structure of the Mosques

Farzaneh Salahimehr

Abstract
The architecture of mosques has undergone various changes in different periods and each historical period has shown its own characteristics. The Khwarazmshahi period is a historical period in which architectural history researchers, due to the shortness of this period and the Mongol invasion, sometimes include the buildings left over from this period as Seljuk or Ilkhanid works. By examining the examples of the two periods, it can be seen that although the architecture of the Khwarazmshahi period was formed in continuation of the Seljuk architecture, it did not follow it completely. The purpose of the research is to investigate features of Zavareh and Gonabad mosques as prominent buildings of the Seljuks and the Khwarazmshahi to pay at the architectural similarities of the two mosques in two successive periods and the architectural differences of the two mosques in two different climates. Zavareh mosque is located in Isfahan, the capital of Seljuk period, and Gonabad mosque is located in Khorasan region, like other mosques of Khwarazmshahi period. By studying the library sources, the theoretical foundations were obtained and the spatial and functional structure of the two mosques were analyzed using the analytical-descriptive strategy along with the comparative comparison method. The differences between the two mosques were analyzed by reference to library sources. According to the findings of the research, the architecture of the two mosques has common features such as the importance of the south front and its porches, the transmitter role of the yard from binding to receiving and the use of brick, which was followed in the Seljuk and Khwarazmshahi periods. But these two mosques have differences in the number of porches, the placement of the entrance and the nave, and the presence or absence of the dome and minaret. In fact, the architecture of Gonabad Mosque has similarities with Zavareh Mosque in terms of space and function, but it has its own characteristics in the organization of the space and it has used the two-porch style without a dome, which is common in most mosques in Khorasan, While the Zavareh mosque has a unique grandeur with the use of a dome and vertical elements. 
Keywords: Zavareh Mosque, Gonabad Mosque, Spatial and Functional Structure, Comparative Comparison.

Introduction
The architecture of mosques has a special place in Islamic art and is a clear manifestation of art in a holy and blessed space and has long been the bed of historical, social, political, social and cultural events (Bemanian et al., 2010: 38). Examining the architectural art of different eras begins with the architecture of mosques, because the mosque, which was the first base and center of gathering of Muslims, in all eras and Islamic lands, its building is very important (Hatam, 2000).
The Seljuk period and the Khwarazmshahi period are considered as two consecutive historical periods in the current research, and the two mosques of Zavareh and Gonabad are representative examples of these two periods, which express their architectural characteristics. The mosques of each historical period are influenced by the features of their previous period, and it is expected that Gonabad Jame Mosque (Khwarazmshahi period) has been influenced by the architectural features of Zavareh Jame Mosque (Seljuk period). The reason for choosing these two examples is that these two mosques as a complete example express the characteristics of their periods and have more complete information than other works of these periods. For this reason, one of the samples was selected in Isfahan and the other in Khorasan, where the Khwarazmshahs ruled the Khwarazm region and the eastern provinces, and most of the known works of this period have the Khwarazmshahi (Khorasani) style. Therefore, it is expected that the difference in the region and climate, along with other factors, will cause differences in the spatial and functional structure of the two mosques. Based on this, the first question of the research is that Gonabad Jame Mosque as an indicator example of Khwarazmshahi period has been influenced to what extent by the spatial and functional features of Zavareh Mosque as an indicator example of its previous period? The second question of the research is, what factors have influenced the difference in the spatial and functional structure of the two mosques in addition to the regional characteristics?
In this research, with the aim of examining the architectural similarities and differences of the two mosques, it has been first pointed out to know the architectural structure of the mosques of the Seljuk and Khwarazmshahi periods; Then, by looking at the spatial and functional features of the two mosques of Zavareh and Gonabad in three scales, macro, medium and micro, their comparative comparison and analysis of existing differences has been done.

Discussion
Order to explain the similarities and differences between the two mosques and to analyze the existing differences, the spatial and functional structure of the two mosques in Zavareh and Gonabad were investigated in three scales: macro, medium and micro. In the macro scale (city), the location of the mosque is defined by factors such as physical connection and continuity, spatial features and functional scale (local or city)، (Soltani Fard & Seyed Moradi, 2016: 108-109). Therefore, the relationship between comprehensive mosques and urban structure was analyzed as a macro scale in this research. As a physical element, the mosque is made up of defined elements such as the entrance, mezzanine, porch, Shabestan, dome, minaret, altar, etc. (Zahabi, 2018: 3-4). In this research, these elements are referred to as medium scale. These elements are mutually related and form the functional-spatial feature of the mosque complex (Soltanifard and Seyed Moradi, 2015: 108-109). According to the constituent elements of the mosques, variables are defined for the analysis of the two mosques at the medium level, which are based on the analysis of the physical pattern, spatial diagram, spatial diversity and spatial-movement hierarchy, as well as the examination of each of the constituent elements and spaces of the mosques (entrance, courtyard and pool), porches, Shabestan and dome). Considering the importance of decorations in Islamic architecture, variables such as decorations and materials used in the building were used as a micro scale.
After the initial description the mosques, based on its spatial and functional structure, a comparative comparison of the data obtained in three Scale has been carried out. The findings of the research show that the architecture of the two mosques of Zavareh and Gonabad have similarities with each other, which is due to the consecutive period of their construction; including the connection with the city, the number of entrances, the equal ratio of open and semi-open spaces, having a central courtyard and organizing the surrounding spaces for transfer and arrival to the final destination, the importance of the south front and its porches, observing the spatial and movement hierarchies, the number of Shabestan, the use of bricks, natural and geometric motifs. But, the regional diversity and the Physical pattern affected by it have caused differences in the two mosques; including the difference in the number of porches, the difference in the shape and size of the courtyard, the difference in the dominance of the central geometry, the difference in the height of the porches, the difference in the opening and depth of the south porch, the difference in the allocation of the space of the Shabestan and its placement, the difference in the hierarchy of movement towards Shabestan, the difference in the presence and absence of the dome and minaret, and the difference in the location of the altar. In addition to regional diversity, other factors affect the differences between the two mosques; among these differences, we can mention the difference in location in the city, the placement of the entrance spaces, the strength of the building and the type of decorations.
 
Conclusion
The results of the comparative comparison of the two mosques of Zavareh and Gonabad in three scales, micro, medium and macro, show that the major difference between the two mosques occurs in the middle scale of the spatial-functional structure of the mosques. In fact, all the differences mentioned in the medium scale, except for the placement of inputs, are caused by climatic, regional factors and the physical pattern affected by it. The differences mentioned in the macro and micro scale, as well as the difference in the placement of inputs in the medium scale caused by other factors, are mentioned. 
In general, Gonabad Mosque has similarities with Zavareh Mosque in its spatial and functional structure, but the organization of its spaces has unique features; So that it has used the style of two porches and without a dome, which was common in many mosques in the Khorasan region. In return, Zavareh Mosque, like many mosques of the Seljuk period, by using the dome and vertical elements and in the four-porch style, unparalleled grandeur has been found.

A Research on the Chinese Pottery Found in the Archaeological Excavations of the Historical City Belqays

Abed Taghavi

Abstract
The historical city of Esfarayen is one of the most important and glorious cities of the Islamic period, which was one of the important provinces of Neishapur until the Mongol invasion, and shortly after the Mongol invasion and the destruction of Neishapur, it was revived and flourished more than before when the Ilkhanids came to power. At the beginning of Timur’s rule, this city was severely destroyed, and from the end of Timur’s period to the end of Shah Abbas Safaviy’s rule, it grew relatively slowly with political ups and downs, and it was abandoned due to the attack of Afghans and population changes. One of the most important valuable goods that was exported from China to other regions from the third to the twelfth century A.H. is Celadon pottery and the other is blue-white pottery. According to the 9 seasons of archaeological exploration in Shahr-e Belqays, 5 pieces of celadon and 2 pieces of blue-white pottery have been found, which have not been studied so far, and for this reason, research was necessary. The main questions of this research are, first of all, what period do these celadons and blue-and-white porcelain belong to? Secondly, according to the technical structure and typological comparison, are the pottery produced locally or extra-regionally, and how did it enter the city of Esfarayen? The third question is the reason for the presence of this type of pottery in the historical city of Esfarayen based on the archaeological context and historical documents. The descriptive-analytical research method and data collection method is based on field and library studies. The results showed that the celadons belong to the 2nd to the 8th century A.H. and the blue-and-white pottery are dated to the beginning of the 8th to the 11th century. The celadons and blue-whites studied are completely non-native and entered the city of Esfarayen by sea and land. Due to the quality and rarity, the type of motifs and the type of lines and writing themes are related to the noble and wealthy classes of the city.
Keywords: Shahr-e Belqays, Esfarayen, Islamic Period, Chinese Pottery, Ming Dynasty.

Introduction
Due to the strategic position of the land of Iran, which has always been on the path of important East-West communication routes from the past to the present, with a branch of the Silk Road passing through its soil as an intermediary between the civilizations of the Far East, especially China and Its western neighbors were like Iraq and Syria. Among the goods exported from China are the famous Celadon pottery and blue-and-white pottery. Due to the importance of Celadon and blue-and-white pottery, many countries were competing with each other based on their geographical region at that time to take over the market for the products of this art and industry. China was the main manufacturer of this product and Iran was the main highway for the commercial connection of this product to Europe and Africa. The city of Esfarayen is one of the important cities of the Islamic period, which was located on the commercial route of the Silk Road (Moghdisi, 1982: 566); (Ibn-e Howqal, 1986: 188; Jihani, 1988: 149); (Ibn-e Khurdazbah, 1991: 222). Due to the presence of powerful rulers and politicians such as Abu al-Abbas Esfarayeni in the Samanid and Ghaznavid periods, in the Seljuq and Ilkhanid periods such as Saeed Malik Bahauddin Juvini and in the Safavid period, Abu Muslim Khan enjoyed special growth and development and is one of the most prosperous and prosperous cities. Khorasan was considered that the commercial highways passed through this city (Aubin, 1971:121). In addition to crossing the trade route, the existence of thriving markets (Idrisi, 1409 AH, Vol. 2: 690-693)، (Hamiri, 1984: 56), and the production of important goods such as: cloth, metal containers, pottery, makes merchants and In addition to supplying goods imported from far away to this city, merchants should distribute the goods produced in this city to nearby cities and distant places, especially the Iranian plateau, Shamat, Anatolian Peninsula, North Africa, etc. One of the most important imported goods and popular among the governors and residents of this city is the dishes known as Celadon and Blue White, of which 5 pieces of such dishes have been discovered in archaeological excavations (Nikgoftar, 2014). Considering the discovery of this pottery from the archaeological context and the lack of introduction and study of it, and from the mention of writing marks on their surface, the upcoming article tries to analyze them in the context of history and archeology in addition to introducing and reading the lines.
.
Discussion and reasoning
In the archaeological excavations of the city of Esfarayen, a total of 4 pieces of celadon pottery were found, one of which is of the Yue type (3rd-4th century) and the rest is of the Lank Chuan type (6th and 7th century). By examining and comparing these types of pottery, it can be said that in addition to neighboring areas and extra-regional areas, there has been direct or indirect trade with China since the 3rd century, considering the increase in the number of Lankchuan pottery related to the 6th century. And seventhly, from the reference of historical documents about the rule of the Jovini family over this city, their good relations with the Genghis family and the handing over of the government of the western part of Khorasan to this family (Jovini, 2012, vol.2, 222) and the political-economic journey of this family to Mongolia (ibid.: 222) and from the discovery of coins from this period in neighboring regions (Nikgoftar & Behnamfar, 2008) and extra-regional (ТЮНИБЕКЯАН, 2003) it can be said that in this period, Lank Chuan pottery came through the trade route of the Silk Road. That Esfarayen was located in one of these important commercial branches (Maghdisi, 1982: 566); (Ibn-e Howqal, 1986: 188; Jihani, 1988: 149); (Ibn-e Khurdazbah, 1991: 222) entered this city. Among other pottery that can be seen in China and Islamic lands in a significant way after Celadon is blue-and-white pottery, the production of these vessels became common in the states of Jijiang, Jianshui, Yusi and Jiangshan from the Yuan Dynasty, but the best type In the Jindjin states in the city of Chin Khwa (Chin-Hwa), which was related to the imperial furnaces (Bahranipour, 2022: 8). In the archaeological excavations in Shahr-e Belqays, 2 pieces of blue-and-white pottery were identified, which according to the decorations and technical structure belong to the late Timurid and Safavid periods and the Ming period in China. It has been stated that according to the reference of historical documents and archaeological data mentioned above about the importance, value and use of these vessels and from the motifs and lines used and the examination of the technical structure of the vessels which proves that they are non-native, in general, it can be He said that these dishes were made for the order or use of the rich class and nobles in this city.

Conclusion
By studying the piece of Chinese pottery in the city of Esfarayen, so far, two prominent pottery types of Celadan and blue-and-white have been obtained, the first group of Celadan; that by comparative comparison of this species in terms of technical structure such as; The type of paste, glaze and construction form with examples of ceramics obtained from the sites of the Islamic period such as; Siraf, Mehruban, Kish, Neishapur, and Bandar Najiram, it can be said that this type of celadan is imported and non-native, and in terms of chronology, it is similar to the Yue and Lank Chuan types at the same time as the Samanian period until the end of the Ilkhanate period. The increase in the number of Lankchuan type of celadan along with other archaeological evidence and historical documents prove the prosperity and prosperity of this city in the Ilkhanid period and a transregional and global trade connection. Among the other types of pottery that were mentioned are blue-and-white pottery, according to the comparative studies and examination of their technical structure, this type is also imported, according to the references in the historical documents about the destruction of this city in the attack of Timur and its lack of prosperity. It can be said that the presence of this type of pottery in this city dates back to the late Timurid period and the early Safavid period, during which time this city prospered again. According to the taxonomic examination and comparison of the pottery, which is completely similar to the pottery discovered in Hormuz, Taiwan, and the samples obtained from North Africa, it can be said that probably these pottery were indirectly and transregionally and globally from China to the port of Hormuz. And through the south-north highway and through the Jerjan-Tos commercial road, which was restored and reconstructed by Amir Ali Shir Navai in this period, he entered the city of Safrayan. Due to the rarity, quality of construction, themes and motifs, and on the one hand, historical documents indicate that these dishes were used in royal banquets or royal tombs, and from the discovery of these pieces from the citadel and noble houses, it can be said that these dishes are unique to The privileged and prosperous classes belonged to the historical city of Esfarayen. In general, the Chinese writings in the blue-and-white earthenware of Esfarayen city are as follows: the text of container number 9, the writing on the bottom of the container is incomplete and illegible, and the text on the bottom of the container contains the Chinese word called (peace, comfort), (longevity), (happiness) and (health). The text of container number 13 is written with the comparison and typology of the Chinese word du-ming-nlen-zuo, meaning the construction of the Ming period.

Investigation of the Origin, Visual Characteristics, and Content of Patterns and Inscriptions on Luster Tiles of Kamaliyeh School in Yazd

Seyed Fazlollah Mirdehqan

Abstract
Kamaliyeh Collection is one of the most significant remnants dating back to the first half of the 8th century AD in the city of Yazd. Despite its historical and archaeological importance, no studies have been conducted on this collection. Through systematic efforts carried out in the 1970s, 24 intact or broken tiles with luster patterns depicting plants, birds, and inscriptions in the form of star-shaped (kokabi) motifs were discovered. Since there have been no published studies or reports on these tiles, the present research aims to examine their visual, content, and probable origin characteristics based on historical and architectural evidence through a comparative analysis with existing samples. Therefore, the following research questions are addressed: 1. What information can be obtained from the patterns and inscriptions on luster tiles of Kamaliyeh School in Yazd? 2. Based on the visual features of the patterns, which centers of luster tile production do the identified tiles belong to? The current study employs a documentary and descriptive-historical approach, along with analytical and comparative methods, to logically address the research questions. The results indicate that the patterns on the tiles include floral designs (three pattern models with a lotus flower motif and Shah Abbasid buds around the center of the tile), birds (a flying eagle with spread wings among floral patterns), and inscriptions (Quranic verses with themes of victory, admonition, sustenance, and Persian literature derived from Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and Shams Tabrizi). These designs on the tiles serve specific religious, belief, and burial functions within the collection. Moreover, considering the significant similarity in pattern models, designs, and inscriptions among the studied samples, it is likely that Kashan was the major center for tile production. This is plausible considering the strategic communication route from Rey to Kerman passing through Kashan to Yazd for the distribution of luster tiles.
Keywords: Kamaliyeh School, Yazd, luster tiles, floral patterns and inscriptions, Kashan.

Introduction
The Al-Muzaffar era is one of the significant historical periods in the city of Yazd, ruling over the southern and central regions of Iran in the 8th century AD. The flourishing construction and development in Yazd during this period were substantial enough to lead to the expansion of its citadel and wall in several stages, particularly the relocation of some city districts outside its fortifications (Kateb, 1966: 69).
Luster tiles were crucial architectural elements used in both religious and non-religious structures during this period, adorning interior or exterior facades and mihrabs. In the Ilkhanid era, some religious buildings in cities, including the mausoleums of Shiites, were adorned with luster artworks. It seems that Yazd was one such city, gaining increased significance during the Middle Islamic centuries with the rise of the Al-Muzaffar dynasty. The Al-Muzaffar rule in Yazd, due to their support for the arts and culture of the Yazdi people, contributed significantly to the prosperity and development of the city. This support was to such an extent that one of the shining cultural periods in Yazd’s history is attributed to the reign of the Al-Muzaffar dynasty (Kateb, 1966: 89).
One notable feature of this era was the establishment of numerous Dar al-’Ilms (houses of knowledge), with Yazd earning the title of Dar al-’Ilm. Various sciences were taught in schools, mosques, Dar al-Siyadehs, and Khanqahs (Mirhosseini, 1993: 58). Another characteristic of this period was the flourishing of Sufism and the creation of various khaneqahs in Yazd and its surrounding regions, including the Rastaq Khanqah (Ibid: 265). These institutions made utmost efforts to create robust architecture and embellish it with the finest elements. One of the historical buildings of great value, adorned with remarkable luster tiles, is the Kamaliyeh Collection or Shah Kamal in Yazd. This structure was constructed in the year 720 AH by Khwaja Kamal al-Din Abu al-Ma’ali.
In the early 1970s, during organizational efforts, a number of luster tiles were discovered installed above a wall and are currently preserved in the secure storage of the Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts, and Tourism Organization of Yazd Province (Afshar, Vol. 2, 1996: 613). Although these objects have been organized and cataloged in recent years, a comprehensive scientific study on these tiles and their origin has not been conducted so far. Therefore, the present research aims to provide logical answers to existing ambiguities regarding the origin and nature of these tiles by studying their patterns and inscriptions and comparing them with contemporary and similar samples.

Discussion and Analysis
Tile Shape: The identified luster tiles in this structure are octagonal, a model commonly used in combination with cross-shaped (Chelipa) tiles with turquoise single-glaze enamel in the decoration of religious Shia buildings, such as the shrines of Imam Reza (AS) and Hazrat Masoumeh (SA) or Takht-e-Soleiman, dating back to the 7th century AD. In their decoration, plant, animal, and inscription motifs have been employed.
Patterns: The bird pattern of a flying eagle is one of the common motifs in the decoration of these tiles, appearing in the midst of floral patterns with outspread wings. Comparable examples can be identified among luster vessels produced in the city of Kashan. Among the comparable examples, luster star-shaped tiles in the Museum of Islamic Art in Istanbul, a sample from Takht-e-Soleiman in the British Museum, samples from the Sackler collection, the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the Freer Gallery of Art, all date back to the Ilkhanid period and were produced in the city of Kashan.

Floral Patterns
Most of the studied tiles depict a blue lotus flower with dense branches and leaves covering the entire central area of the tile. The spaces between the branches and leaves are filled with small circular motifs arranged in a band. While the floral patterns show overall similarity, careful examination reveals at least three design patterns among them: 1) a floral design with a Shah Abbasid flower at the top with branches and leaves on both sides (examples 16-1), 2) a Shah Abbasid flower in the center with dense branches and leaves around it (example 17), and 3) a small hexagonal flower at the top with two Shah Abbasid flowers on either side (example 20). Among these three patterns, the similarities between patterns 1 and 2 with samples from the Cambi Auction House in Genoa, Italy, a specimen from Sultanabad, and a sample preserved in the Victoria and Albert Museum are noteworthy.

Inscriptions
All the studied tiles include outer margins adorned with inscriptions. Among the 24 studied tiles, 18 are adorned with Quranic verses, 6 with Persian verses, 5 with verses from the Shahnameh, and one of the samples features verses from Shams Tabrizi.
The detailed analysis of the identified luster tiles in the Kamaliyeh Collection provides valuable insights into the patterns, shapes, and inscriptions used during the Al-Muzaffar era in Yazd. Comparisons with contemporary examples from Kashan and other regions contribute to a better understanding of the cultural and artistic context of this historical period.

Conclusion
The Kamaliyeh School is one of the significant educational institutions of the Ilkhanid period in the city of Yazd, expanding its influence in subsequent eras. It appears that luster tiles were utilized in adorning certain sections of the building, though the exact purpose of their use remains unclear. In the explorations conducted in Yazd, few traces of luster tiles have been discovered, and the collected samples from the Kamaliyeh School are the most important luster artifacts found to date. A crucial point is the function of these tiles, as research suggests that they are generally associated with religious beliefs or identity burial practices and have been predominantly used in shrines or burial sites. In the Kamaliyeh Collection, it is probable that they were used in the burial chamber, similar to examples found in the Seyyed Shams al-Din and Seyyed Rokn al-Din shrines in Yazd. While the samples from Takht-e-Soleiman primarily depict a royal structure (palace), the presence of religious color throughout the entire collection justifies the usage of such ceramics. Moreover, considering the Kamaliyeh Collection’s diverse functions, including a khanqah, school, and dome, and its educational-religious approach, the use of these types of tiles was likely a common practice during its time. The results also indicate the use of three categories of patterns: floral, animal, and inscription motifs. The floral patterns mostly depict a blue lotus flower, which has a long history in Iranian culture and has been used in various arts, including carpet weaving, under different names like “Shah-Abbasi flower.” With regards to the better-preserved examples, at least three design patterns emphasizing the Shah Abbasid flower are conceivable. The bird pattern of a flying eagle, present in the midst of floral patterns and on the central area of octagonal tiles, is surrounded by inscriptions in though script on the outer margin. The inscriptions draw inspiration from two different sources, the Holy Quran and Persian literature. Quranic inscriptions are categorized into several groups based on content, and the presented concepts can be considered relevant to the building’s function. Persian verses are mostly related to the Shahnameh, with only one case influenced by the poetry of Shams Tabrizi. Through a comparison of form, design patterns of motifs and inscriptions, and even the colors used, with examples preserved in museums such as the British Museum, the Museum of Islamic Art in Istanbul, the Sackler Collection, the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the Cambi Auction House in Genoa, it can be asserted that the probable place of production for the luster tiles of the Kamaliyeh School was the city of Kashan.

Critical Evaluation of Restoration of the Stone and Tile Mosaic Inscription of the Atigh Mosque of Shiraz, Emphasizing the Authenticity of the Form

Parvin Soleimani

Abstract
Atigh Jameh Mosque, also known as Masjid-e-Atigh in Persian, is the oldest mosque in Shiraz, Iran. It is situated on the east side of the Shah Cheragh Shrine. The construction of the mosque began in the year 276 and was completed in 281 AH to celebrate the conquest of Shiraz by Saffarid Amroleiss. The mosque has been restored several times during the Atabeg, Timurid, and Safavid eras. It has six entrances, but the main entrance is located on the northern side, which was restored during the Safavid era. This mosque holds a special cultural and historical significance for the people of Shiraz. The Jameh Mosque of Atigh in Shiraz is an exceptional historical mosque in Iran. It boasts unique architectural decorations, including a stone-and-tile inscription placed in the God’s House of the mosque. Pir Yahya Sufi, one of the famous calligraphers in the 8th Hijri century, inscribed the writing of the inscription. According to historical documents, the mosque has been restored several times. Unfortunately, some restoration practices have tarnished the originality of the work by ignoring the calligraphic style of the original description. In the present study, the restored parts of the tile inscription have been examined. The examined parts were compared with other works of Pir Yahya Sufi and with other parts of the original inscription itself.
Keywords: Atiq Shiraz Mosque, Authenticity, Inscription.

Introduction
The notion of historical region is crucial in understanding a work, as it is inherently transferable from its physical existence to its historical context (Benjamin, 2003). Therefore, it is important to identify, formulate, and evaluate the notion of originality during different historical periods (Araoz, 2008:36). The most common way to prove originality is by demonstrating the historicity of the work, which is not limited to a single era but encompasses the entire historical context in which the work was created and its various influences. Article 12 of The Venice Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites stipulates that replacements of missing parts must integrate harmoniously with the whole, but at the same time must be distinguishable from the original so that restoration does not falsify the artistic or historic evidence (URL 1). In this respect, inadequate guidelines for restoring inscriptions led to subjective approaches and unfaithful outcomes. When creating an inscription, calligraphy is also an important factor to consider. As such, the conservator must take into account the 12 principles of calligraphy, which include combination, baseline, proportion, weakness, strength, surface, distance, virtual ascent, purity, place, privacy, and magnificence. (Rahjiry n 1967: 48-51.8-51). Architectural inscriptions play a significant role among the decoration of historical buildings and are considered to be live documents. In the research, we examined the restoration work done on a stone-tile inscription from the perspective of its originality. Ignoring the original calligraphic style, visual art principles, as well as the principles of calligraphy, has resulted in irreparable mistakes overriding the originality of the inscription under discussion. As such, before restoring any inscription, the conservator must have a complete understanding of its components. In this case, both the previous restoration methods have been analyzed, and the restored inscription has been studied based on calligraphic principles.
The Methodology: The study is qualitative. The data were collected from library sources and field studies and compared analytically. The findings showed that during the restoration process, there were noticeable discrepancies between the restored calligraphic parts and those of the original ones. This implies that the conservator did not have sufficient recognition of the original inscription. As a result of excessively arbitrary and justifiable interventions, the conservator tarnished the originality of the mentioned historical work.

Discussion
Preserving the originality of an inscription is crucial, and one of the essential factors that contribute to it is the form and design. By originality of design and form, we mean that the inscription’s initial design and structure must be restored. For instance, if the inscription was initially written in Thuluth or Naskh script, the same calligraphic style must be retained during the restoration process. To evaluate the degree to which this criterion has been met for the inscription under discussion, we need to compare it with other surviving works of Pir Yahya Sufi and examine the original and unrestored parts of the inscription. As such, the restored inscription was compared with the only surviving written work of Pir Yahya Sufi, which is a written copy of the Holy Quran, along with old documents and images. The calligraphic lines of the inscription were compared, letter by letter, to the original works of Pir Yahya Sufi. During the first phase of the analysis, the Arabic letters و and ر in the papillae of the inscription (a triangular prism serving as a support strap) were compared with three surviving images, which included original parts, newly restored parts, and handwritten copies of Pir Yahya Sufi. This comparison revealed differences in the calligraphic styles of the letters. However, the similarity between the survived calligraphic lines of the inscription and those of handwritten copies suggested that the papillae area must have been the restored part. While in the papillae part, the Arabic letter “و” was written with an upward inclination, the other two letters of و were sharp and inclined downward. A noticeable difference was observed in the way that the word “Allah” was written in the handwritten copy of Pir Yahya Sufi compared to the restored inscription under study. In the handwritten copy of Pir Yahya Sufi, the last letter of the word “Allah” is inclined upward. However, in the restored inscription, the last letter of the word “Allah” is inclined downward. Additionally, the calligraphic style of the letters “د” and “ل” in different parts of the inscription were examined and found to be similar to those in the handwritten copies that were studied. Likewise, upon studying the calligraphic style of the letter ر, it was found to be similar in all handwritten copies. Different parts of the inscription involving this letter were considered to be the main parts. If we examine the handwritten copies of Pir Yahya Sufi closely, we can see that the calligraphic style of the letters such as م, ر, and د is elongated and inclined leftward and downward. The Arabic word “من” has been written in a similar calligraphic style both in the restored inscription and the handwritten copies of Pir Yahya Sufi. The Arabic letter م has been written with a broken curvature, at the button, and a turned-up extension.

Conclusion
The preservation of the originality of works of art has been a major concern among art conservators for years. It can help experts to methodically restore historical monuments. In this study, we focused on one of the most outstanding monuments in Iran, which had undergone significant damage. We aimed to analyze the stone-tile inscription of God’s House in Atigh Mosque while keeping the original form and shape intact. It is important to consider the form of the work when dealing with it as ignoring it can lead to damaging its originality. During the study, the restoration of the inscription had been done unjustifiably due to ignoring the calligraphic style, form, and design. To rectify this, we conducted field studies and gathered various works of Peer, the calligrapher of the inscription, to analyze the restored parts. We compared them with the surviving original parts of the inscription and with handwritten copies of Pir Yahya Sufi for further examination. After conducting a restoration on the inscription, it was discovered that there is a noticeable difference between the calligraphy style of the restored parts and the original ones. This is especially evident when comparing the surviving photos of the original inscription. For example, the Arabic letter و has been written differently in the restored version, with some parts sloping downwards and others upwards. However, in the surviving original copies of Pir Yahya Sufi kept in Pars Museum in Shiraz, the letter و is inclined downward. The restoration of works of art, especially those with inscriptions or works by known calligraphers, requires sensitivity. Conservators must thoroughly examine the work from different angles and understand the calligrapher’s style before taking any action. Each calligrapher has their unique style, which must be taken into account during restoration. Tarnishing the originality of the work is equivalent to fabricating the inscription, which must be avoided. By analyzing and criticizing the restoration of architectural decoration and inscriptions, the historical fabric can be preserved.

Nature in the Works of Behzad’s Heirs to Still Life in the Works of Mirza-Baba

Ali Salmani

Abstract
For the first time, “Mirza-Babai Esfahani” paid attention to the still life with the curtain “Yalda Night” in the Qajar period. In this period, under the influence of political, cultural and social conditions and influenced by factors such as the establishment of the printing press and the end of the era of book writing, familiarity with the thoughts of the Enlightenment era, courtiers who were deeply fascinated and intimidated by Western civilization, familiarity with photography and... the mission and function of art It underwent substantial changes. And the elements of Western art prevailed over the tradition of Iranian painting. So we come across an interesting paradox: the first screen of still life, which is a completely western genre, became the last bastion of resistance of Iranian painting elements. In this article, based on the historical, descriptive, analytical method, and by addressing the cultural and political conditions of the Safavid and Qajar eras, why Iranian painters, despite being familiar with Western works and greatly influenced by their art, do not pay attention to the genre of nature. Didn’t they die? What were the reasons for the emergence of this genre in the works of “Mirza-Baba” with a delay of two centuries? With this aim, the link between the popularization of realism and attention to nature in the works of Kalk Behzad’s heirs during the Safavid period, which is considered a turning point in the history of Iranian painting, to the creation of the first still life scene two centuries after these developments, let’s find.
Keywords: Painting, Naturalism, Still Life, Realism, Painting.

Introduction
Countless illustrated books with historical, scientific, religious themes, love and lyrical mysticism and the representation of royal glory and glory have been left as a memory of those days; which is the result of the collective work of artists and writers and of course the result of commissions and royal workshops1, not the product of the free and creative spirit of the artist as a subject. Iranian painters paid attention to still life for the first time during the Qajar period and basically in this period, they were able to discover their creations independently of the orders of the court and by distancing themselves from the traditions governing Iranian painting, book writing, etc., as independent artists with genius. From this point of view, it is very important to pay attention to inanimate nature, especially in the works of Mirza-Babai Isfahani; And in addition to representing the political, social and cultural situation of that era, it can be considered a turning point in the history of Iranian painting.
What the authors of this article are trying to analyze and deal with is this point; Why, despite the fact that Iranian painters were introduced to Western works during the Safavid era and accepted significant influences from the tradition of Western painting, they never paid attention to still life? However, due to reasons such as the relative independence of artists from the court and the emergence of the urban middle class as new patrons of artists and the familiarity of courtiers and artists with Western and Gorkan works, we witnessed significant developments in Iranian painting. What were the reasons for Iranian painters’ attention to still life in the Qajar period? With the aim of finding the connection line between the emergence of realism and the consideration of nature in the works of Kalk Behzad’s heirs during the Safavid period as a turning point in the history of Iranian painting, until the first scene of still life in the two centuries after those developments.

Still life in Europe, and the fields of its emergence
Still life in the 17th century, which was noticed again in the Protestant Netherlands, is the result of the freedom of the creative spirit and the genius of the individual and independent artist. Affected by the political, economic and religious issues of that era, it flourished. However, the ancient works were created in a different context and with a different function and could not be the product of the artist’s individual genius and creativity. As a result of the Reformation - the Protestant revolt against the Church of Rome (c. 1517) - religious painting in northern Europe suffered a serious decline, thus
European society, even in the Middle Ages, has not seen a stricter position than Protestant theology in relation to art and the field of aesthetics. Insistence on eternal salvation and his decisive distinction between the earthly and heavenly spheres, in addition to depriving the artists of the support of the church without any financial resources. He had also emptied religious places and churches of all images and statues. Collecting pre-Christian myths and subjects related to classical art and literature was considered forbidden. Gardner raises a question in his enduring work “Art in the Passage of Time” whose answer is definitely considered one of the main factors of the developments in the art of that period in Europe and especially in the Netherlands. “Religious themes, or later classical and historical themes, were the main motivations for artistic creation during the Middle Ages and the Renaissance. What else did the art world, deprived of these sources, have to enrich the lives of the wealthy Dutch?” (Gardner, 1381: 523)
The painters who were independent from their employers and the ruling foundations of the church and created their works by relying on their own taste and creativity; which was one of the heavy consequences of this independence. Now they had to deal with the public buyers and attract the opinion of a large number of customers. In this way, Dutch artists in the 17th century, considering their leisure and independence, and of course in response to the interests of rich buyers who
wanted paintings to hang on the walls of their houses - understood the signs of wealth, aristocracy and social status - as the common words of the people Alley and bazaar can shape the words of a beautiful song, ordinary everyday objects can create a masterpiece.” (Gumbridge, 2013: 420)
The little Dutch masters simulated the least valuable objects that only have meaning in the presence of humans or in the lives of humans, so humbly and respectfully; that the viewer thinks he is watching some sacred objects” (Gardner, 2011: 531).
The first curtain of still life, the last bastion of resistance of Iranian traditions from Safavid to Qajar
During the Safavid era and according to the political and social conditions of that time, western traditions influenced Iranian painting. It can be said that Isfahan school painting was a fusion of western and Iranian traditions. Western elements were carefully used by Iranian artists. Iran at that time was unified, unified and glorious, and certainly in such conditions, artists and the middle class are not intimidated by the excitement of the cultural and artistic elements of the West. Many Iranian traditions were still respected, and efforts were being made to restore them. Of course, the developments in Iranian painting were not the result of intellectual developments and had no ideological base; And just by observing the western painting, it was also manifested in the works of Iranian artists. For this reason, in many cases, the adaptations seemed incomplete and clumsy.
There was no still life in Iranian painting before the Qajar period, and although objects were part of the composition of images, they were not placed in front of the artist as an independent subject for painting. In the Qajar period, examples can be found where the objects are not the margins but the entire text of the painting. In the still life painting by Mirza-Babai Esfahani, pomegranates, pears, watermelons, vases and other objects are placed together in such a way that they form the main subject of the painting. These other objects are related to a legend, epic, text and or they are not poems. Their beauty and their painting aspect is the attention of the painter.” (Kord Noghani, 1397: 108)

Conclusion
In the early 10th century AD, with the emergence of the Safavid dynasty, we witnessed significant changes in the political, social and cultural fields, which influenced the art of that period. And took a new path.
However, realism, naturalistic tendencies, new subjects and styles such as bright shadow, perspective, depth, as well as the weakening of the relationship between painting and literature, as a result of the decline of the hegemony of royal workshops and the rise of the middle class, entered Iranian painting. But the painters of this period did not pay attention to still life. At that time, Iran was experiencing its period of power and greatness, and it was not yet so enamored with western traditions that it forgot all Iranian elements and customs. Although the influence of the court workshops was reduced; But it still played a decisive role in the evolution of Iranian art. As a result, Iranian artists still did not have the necessary independence. And still, bibliography is considered the main painting activity at this stage. Creativity, genius, and individual independence of the artist as a subject was not limited; who can get rid of all traditions at once, and create a personal work with completely individual compositions and using everyday elements. As if it took some time for this process to go through and during the Qajar period, Mirza-Baba Esfahani recorded the first experience of still life.
It can be concluded that the Iranian artist discovers objects in his new era and this new art - not industry - whose connection with text and literature has loosened and gained relative independence, is in search of a subject for the image. The eyes of the artist - not the craftsman - find this theme in the objects around them and placing them next to each other in a beautiful way; Undoubtedly, the diminution of the educational role of the royal workshops and the spread of university and modern education have been very important in discovering the genius and creativity of the artists of that period.

A Comparative Study of the Execution Method of the Koshtehbori Stucco Decoration with other Stucco Decorations in Safavid Period Architecture

Parviz Eghbali

Abstract
During the Safavid period, innovations were created in Stucco decorations. the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration is one of the most attractive and unique architectural decorations of the Safavid period, which was implemented with various motifs in some of the buildings of that period and has a special creativity and innovation that is different from the implementation of other types of Stucco decorations. Knowing the methods and implementation steps of Stucco decorations in restoration projects and studying them is considered as one of the essential elements and an inseparable part of the protection of historical Stucco decorations. The purpose of this research is to identify the similarities and differences, the variety of methods and the stages of implementation of Koshtehbori Stucco decoration with other Stucco decorations in the architecture of the Safavid period. The questions of this research are: What are the similarities and differences of Koshtehbori Stucco decoration with other Stucco decorations in Safavid period architecture in terms of the method and stages of construction and execution? What is the appropriate classification for technical types of Stucco decorations in Safavid architecture? The research method is descriptive-analytical and comparative, and the collection of findings is in the form of library studies and field observations. The results of the studies showed that, unlike other Stucco decorations of the Safavid period, in the execution of the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration, Finishing, polishing, Convex or concavity was not done on the surface of the motifs, and only the background of the design or some carving motifs. In terms of the method, stages and sequence of execution, the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration, is the most similar to the Stucco decoration with carved colored layers. These similarities are in terms of the thickness of each layer of one millimeter and the method of cutting at an angle of 90 degrees to the surface of the motifs and polishing and smoothing the carved parts. Is. Also, in terms of the method, steps and sequence of execution, the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration, is the most different from the carved decoration filled with colored gypsum.
Keywords: Koshtehbori, The Technique of Implementing Stucco Decorations, Classification of Stucco Decorations, Safavid Period Architecture.

Introduction
Stucco decorations in Iran’s architecture have been implemented with different techniques and methods, one of which is the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration. The method and technique of execution of the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration in the Safavid period architecture is different from the Stucco decorations before it and required less time and economic cost per unit area than the relief Stucco decorations of the previous periods. This ornament has a special beauty, it has a variety of colors or different motifs. Previous research by experts in Iranian architecture and art history has focused mostly on Stucco decoration motifs and less on stucco types, comparative analysis of construction methods and techniques. A special classification and understanding of the execution method of Safavid period Stucco decorations can draw more attention to documentation and practical aspects in their basic maintenance and restoration. This research aims to identify the similarities and differences, variety of methods and stages, and execution order of the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration in comparison with other Stucco decorations of the Safavid period, as well as classify the Stucco decorations of this period.
The research questions are: What is the appropriate classification for technical implementation types of Stucco decorations of Safavid period architecture? What are the similarities and differences between the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration and other Stucco decorations of the Safavid period in terms of construction methods and stages? Research method: This research used a descriptive-analytical method to investigate some architectural Stucco decorations in Iran through library studies and field observations. The statistical population of this research includes 6 types of common Stucco decorations in Safavid architecture. The common features and differences between the Koshtehbori decoration and other Stucco decorations of the Safavid period were presented in a descriptive-analytical and adaptive-comparative method in terms of execution methods and stages. For this purpose, common Stucco decorations were examined in terms of the order of executive layers, such as support, scratch coat(arriccio) and fine coat (intonaco) layers, type of background, design drawing and stabilization, plastered layer, and finishing steps. The findings of this research were collected through written and documented sources, as well as field investigations by the authors, including pictures of examples of common Stucco decorations of the Safavid period architecture. In addition to proposing a new classification and naming of some decorations, the research analyzed different types of Stucco decorations by comparing samples to identify similarities and differences between Safavid period Stucco decorations.

Discussion
- Presenting a suitable classification of Stucco decoration of Safavid period architecture
This research proposes a new classification system for Stucco decorations in Safavid period architecture based on seven specific criteria. These criteria include the method of shaping, the kind of materials used in the background, the appearance of the surfaces on the motifs, the size and amount of relief, finishing works, in terms of the background and shape of the motifs. Each criterion has a different category, which allows for a more precise identification and recognition of different Stucco decorations. This classification system is crucial for the conservation and restoration of these decorations, as it helps to avoid unprincipled interferences in restoration interventions.

- A comparative study of the Stucco decoration of Koshtehbori with other Stucco decorations in Safavid period architecture
In this regard, six different Stucco decorations that were commonly used and innovative during the Safavid period were selected and compared with the Stucco decoration of Koshtehbori in terms of execution method and order. These are:
A: Stucco decoration of Koshtehbori: This decoration, with different techniques and motifs, has been implemented in some buildings of the Safavid period. These decoration are often prepared, designed and implemented with various geometrical, Khataei and Slimy motifs on a background of plaster mortar, which is different from other plaster ornament methods.
B: Stucco decoration with carved colored layers: Among other Stucco decorations in the architecture of the Safavid period, this decoration is the most similar to the Stucco decoration of Koshtehbori.
C: Stucco decoration on Simgel: This decoration is different from the Stucco decoration of Koshtehbori in terms of grouting with mud in the background (empty space between the motifs), the curvature around the motifs, the relief of the motifs, and the shape of the motifs.
D: Stucco decoration on a flat mirror: In this Stucco decoration, flat mirrors are used as a Stucco substrate. In terms of the mirror background between the patterns, the curvature around the patterns, the relief of the patterns, and the shape of the patterns, this Stucco is different from the Stucco decoration of Koshtehbori.
E: Stucco decoration on the Koj mirror (Kopbori): This Stucco decoration is made using the combination of Koj mirror and Stucco parts. This decoration, in an additional stage of initial drawing and transfer of the design, adhesive plaster mortar behind the mirror, in terms of the mirror background of Koj between the motifs, the curvature around the motifs, the relief of the motifs and in the shape of the motifs with the Stucco decoration of Koshtehbori is different.
F: The Naghri Stucco decoration filled with colored gypsum mortar: the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration is the most different from the carved Stucco decoration filled with colored gypsum mortar compared to other Stucco decorations in Safavid period architecture
In the end, the six Stucco decorations of the Safavid period are compared with their sub-groups in the seven classifications in the architecture of the Safavid period. Based on this comparison, we can observe their similarities and differences in the subgroups. For example, the shaping technique of the six types is done in situ, and the type of material used in the background of the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration, the Stucco decoration with carved colored layers, and the Naghri decoration filled with colored plaster is gypsum. However, in the other three decorations with different materials, it is Simgel, flat mirror, and koj mirror.

Conclusion
Through the study and research conducted, a more comprehensive classification and suitable division for Stucco decorations in Iranian architecture has been presented. In this research, Safavid period gypsum decorations are classified based on a specific seven criterion, which includes shaping technique, material used in the background, surface appearance of patterns, size and amount of relief, and complementary works, in terms of both background and pattern shape. Each of these criteria has its own subgroups.
Stucco decorations in Safavid architecture have similarities and differences in terms of their technical aspects and design. In the execution of the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration, unlike other Safavid Stucco decorations, carving, polishing, convex or concaving on the surface of patterns was not performed, and only the background or some parts of the pattern were carved and polished. In terms of the method, stages and sequence of execution, the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration, is the most similar to the Stucco decoration with carved colored layers. These similarities are in terms of the thickness of each layer of one millimeter and the method of cutting at an angle of 90 degrees to the surface of the motifs and polishing and smoothing the carved parts. Is. Also, in terms of the method, steps and sequence of execution, the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration, is the most different from the carved decoration filled with colored gypsum. Stucco decorations on Simgel, on flat mirrors, on Koj mirrors, in terms of the surface of the motifs, which may be Koj or a combination of Koj and Kav, and also, the type and appearance of the motifs, are different from the Koshtehbori Stucco decoration.

Explaining the Theoretical Foundations of Readability Importance in Traditional Conservation and Preservation Approaches in Chehel Sotoun Palace Wall Paintings in Isfahan

Kouros Samanian

Abstract
Wall paintings drawn in the past depict valuable aspects of history and culture of the time of their creation. The goal of this paper is to explore the concept and readability in the wall paintings of Chehel Sotoun Palace in Isfahan. To what extent the approaches of traditional artists and conservators have been based upon Iranian cultural and artistic heritage. how can the meaning behind Chehel Sotoun’s paintings’ readability be evaluated? The research method used in this paper is descriptive-analytical. The goal is to examine the thoughts and theories of conservation and preservation scholars in regards to the influence of Iranian-Islamic cultural background on traditional conservation and preservation approaches in these works. It also explores the perception and significance of the main readability element during the mentioned conservation period. The analyses conducted indicate that approaches of traditional conservators and artists were based on attention to the history and art of the Iranian culture and artistic styles of their own time. Relying on emulation and reinterpretation of paintings and emphasizing on passing on the content and inner meaning of the work through the preservation of the narrative form of mural paintings in Chehel Sotoun, they have provided greater readability of these works for the audience.
Keywords: Protection, Conservation, Readability, Mural, Chehel Sotoun.

Introduction
Establishing a proper connection between the audience and artworks will not be possible unless we understand and grasp the inner meaning. The principle of readability is always based on the relationship between the creator, the art, and the audience. Mural painting have been a symbol of human enthusiasm for creating artworks. Starting from simple forms that symbolize celebration and hunting, Mural Paintings have transformed into concepts that represent the culture and national symbols of a nation or a group of people. The passage of time leads to physical damages to an artwork. When it comes to wall paintings, the conservator must make sure to adhere to scientific principles and important conservation considerations such as aesthetics, authenticity, integrity, and readability. To respect the integrity of an artwork is an essential part of artistic authenticity and will contribute to the readability of the artwork (Great, 2006, p. 6, Pollsson).
In Iran, we still observe that the restoration of historical artefacts are done based on personal views. Salvador Muñoz Viñas argues that classical conservation seeks the objective truth of an artwork and the purpose of conservation is to reinforce its structural and cognitive integrity in order to preserve its true nature. Artworks contain a wealth of information, messages, and meanings. The role of the conservator should be performed properly to enhance the readability of the artwork.
Readability has a hierarchical structure that ensures the preservation of the authenticity and cultural values of an artistic work. Understanding the various dimensions of communication between the creator of the work and the contemporary and future observer and audience has received considerable attention from conservation scholars. The audience, depending on different political, social, and cultural and personal views, can have different perceptions of the work. Conservation and preservation operations also have a significant impact on the readability of artistic works in order to understand and interpret the inner truth of the work.
Objective: 1- This study aims to explore the approaches and methods of traditional preservation and conservation in the wall paintings of Chehel Sotoun Palace in Isfahan, Iran. It aims to analyse the cultural and artistic history of Iran reflected in these paintings and to elucidate the concept and significance of readability in these artworks during the conservation process.
Question: The question is to what extent Iranian cultural and artistic history has been considered by the traditional artists and conservators. With regard to the wall paintings, the question asks how the concept of readability could be evaluated.
Hypothesis: Readability, as a principle in the preservation and conservation of historical-cultural artifacts, especially wall paintings, can depend on the theoretical and practical conservation approaches of its historical period.
Method: Following research is conducted using a descriptive-analytical method with a qualitative and interpretive approach. Data is collected through document studies, library research, observations, and fieldwork to analyze the relevant topics regarding the significance of readability in the approaches of preservation and conservation of the said wall paintings.

Discussion
This research examines the significance of readability in the preservation and restoration of the wall paintings in the Chehel Sotoun Palace in Isfahan, Iran. The findings reveal that the techniques employed by past artists and restorers are deeply intertwined with Iran’s cultural and artistic heritage, prompting critical questions about how these methods affect the artworks’ overall readability.
The study indicates that aesthetic considerations often take precedence over traditional restoration practices, resulting in a neglect of the intrinsic value and historical context that enhance a work’s readability. This emphasis on aesthetics can lead to misunderstandings regarding the artists’ intentions and the cultural narratives embedded in the wall paintings. While restorers aim to preserve the quality and visual appeal of the artworks, their methods may inadvertently result in a loss of originality and meaning, thereby undermining the effectiveness of the narratives intended for modern audiences.
Moreover, the paper identifies a significant gap in existing research concerning the evaluation of readability after restoration. Although many studies focus on the technical aspects of restoration, few address how these interventions impact the viewer’s ability to understand, interpret, and engage with the artworks. This gap highlights the necessity for a paradigm shift in restoration practices, prioritizing readability rather than treating it as an afterthought. It is important to acknowledge the limitations of this study; the findings are specific to the wall paintings examined and may not generalize to all restoration practices. The cultural nuances and historical significance of artworks vary greatly across different regions and periods. Additionally, the subjective nature of readability complicates the creation of a standardized framework for assessing the effectiveness of restoration methods.
Based on these findings, future research should focus on developing a comprehensive methodology for evaluating readability in restored artworks. This could involve interdisciplinary collaborations among restorers, conservators, art historians, and audience researchers to better understand the impact of restoration practices on viewer experiences. Incorporating audience feedback into the restoration process could enhance readability and engagement, preserving both the aesthetic and narrative dimensions of the artworks for future audiences.
Ultimately, this research emphasizes the importance of integrating cultural heritage, artistic intent, and audience engagement in restoration methods. By doing so, it fosters a deeper appreciation of the historical narratives within artworks and the artists’ visions, ensuring their continued relevance and readability for contemporary and future audiences. This approach honors the original creators while illuminating the cultural roots of our shared heritage.

Conclusion
Previous artists and conservators made interventions in their preservation and conservation approaches to the wall paintings of Chehel Sotoun Palace in Isfahan, taking the Iranian cultural and artistic history as well as methods and techniques of their predecessors into account. These interventions are considered significant due to their consideration of the historical period, cultural-artistic perspective, style, and techniques of that era. This phenomenon also existed in European countries, where skilled painters would perform conservation work on their own or on the works of others, thereby leaving their artistic presence on the intended artwork. They aimed to keep the inner content of the work alive as well as reinterpret and transfer that content to their own era, providing a platform for the audience to receive the narrative and inner content of the work. The longevity of the narrative in the mind and memory of the audience leads to the readability of the work. This kind of understanding is what makes the art readable.
If the traditional approaches to the protection and conservation of wall paintings in their own era and time are evaluated, not only the perspective and method that is considered as part of their valuable traditional heritage and historical-cultural values will not be condemned, but it will be contemplated and protected more than ever. Looking at traditional conservation will not only face criticism but will also have the potential and value to envision a better future for the preservation and conservation of historical-cultural works in Iran.

A Comparative Study of the Narrative Patterns in Isfahan School Painting and the Second Pahlavi Period

Seyed Reza Hoseini

Abstract
Iranian art has consistently been shaped by various external influences throughout its history. However, a crucial aspect of these influences is the enduring preservation of character and structure-specifically, the narrative pattern inherent in Iranian art. Historically, Iranian artists have assimilated structural, technical, thematic, and content-related experiences from other cultures while maintaining their unique Iranian identity. This research aims to conduct a comparative study of the narrative pattern, a concept derived from structuralist narratology, in two significant historical periods of Iranian visual art: the reign of Shah Abbas I in Isfahan and the subsequent Pahlavi era. The significance of this study stems from the fact that Iranian painting during these two periods experienced substantial influences from European art, which in turn impacted subsequent artistic movements. Thus, we seek to address the fundamental question: What changes and transformations occurred in the narrative pattern of the Isfahan school of painting compared to that of the second Pahlavi period? Preliminary observations suggest that the modernism evident in the Isfahan school shares greater affinities with the pictorial traditions of Iran’s past, whereas the painting of the second Pahlavi period is characterized by confusion and distress. Employing a descriptive-analytical methodology alongside a comparative approach, this research utilizes documentary and library sources to develop a narrative model for the periods in question. The findings indicate that the narrative pattern in the works of modernist painters from the Isfahan school, when compared to their counterparts in the second Pahlavi period, exhibits a novel style and structure that aligns more harmoniously with the continuity of Iran’s pictorial traditions.
Keywords: Structuralism, Narrative Pattern, Narratology, Isfahan School, Second Pahlavi Period.

Introduction
When examining the identity of Iranian art, one encounters a cohesive whole, despite the numerous changes and developments it has undergone throughout history. The ability to preserve originality while embracing desired changes is a hallmark of the resilience of Iranian culture and art since ancient times. Notably, the tumultuous era of the Mongols paradoxically gave rise to one of the most illustrious periods in Iran’s cultural and artistic history, namely the Timurid and Safavid eras. The incorporation of Chinese and Byzantine painting traditions ultimately led Iranian painting to evolve with distinct coordinates that diverged from its sources in both structure and narrative pattern. During the Safavid period, particularly within the Isfahan school, and continuing into the second Pahlavi era, the influence of European art reached its zenith. This exchange facilitated the transmission of Western culture and customs to the East, resulting in both intentional and unintentional effects. It was within this context that Iranian painting experienced significant European influences (Pakbaz, 2007: 132).
In the early 1920s, a shift in Iran’s political landscape prompted corresponding changes in the cultural atmosphere. The translation and publication of works aimed at familiarizing the Iranian intellectual community with modern European literature and philosophy became a focal point in the search for new avenues of expression. In this regard, the “Art Academy of Fine Arts,” established based on the educational standards of Paris, was inaugurated in 1941.
Artworks can be interpreted through the lens of their source text (Europe) while remaining cognizant of their destination text (Iran). These developments have led, on one hand, to a rupture with traditional narrative patterns and, on the other, to the introduction of new narrative modalities in the history of contemporary Iranian painting. The objective of this research is to investigate the evolution of narrative patterns in the painting of these two pivotal periods. By examining these developments, we can identify the underlying reasons and factors that influenced the creation and transformation of artistic conditions. Drawing on practical analyses of complex situations that have occurred in other times, strategies and plans can be formulated. Historically, Iranian art has prided itself on the influence of foreign artistic traditions. Thus, we seek to address the question: What were the changes and transformations in the narrative pattern of the Isfahan school and the second Pahlavi period? Undoubtedly, these changes encompass both positive and negative aspects, and this research aims to provide a clear depiction of their nature. On one hand, these influences have propelled Iranian painting toward development and evolution; on the other, they have led to the rejection and dissolution of certain pictorial traditions from Iran’s past.

Materials and Methods
This research is descriptive and analytical, employing a comparative approach to address the research problem. Data and works have been qualitatively analyzed based on the narrative model in structuralist narratology, particularly drawing from the theories of Vladimir Propp, a pioneering theorist in this field. Propp’s approach seeks to identify common and recurring elements across different texts to uncover deep structures. Consequently, due to the intertextual borrowing in Iranian painting from literary texts, four common elements topic, theme, motif, and tone have been selected as criteria for analyzing changes. Following the collection of data from specialized books, articles, and electronic databases, the data has been sorted and analyzed until saturation was achieved. From each period, four works that align with the theoretical framework have been selected for analysis.

Discussion and Analysis
The findings of this research can be articulated both generally and in detail. In the comparative study of the narrative patterns in the paintings of the Isfahan school and the second Pahlavi period, there are notable similarities in terms of modernity. In both periods, artists sought to achieve a new and distinct tone, creating works that diverged from past traditions. This aspect of modernism was significantly influenced by European painting traditions prevalent during these historical periods. Another point of similarity between the two eras is the support and promotion of modernism by both the government and patrons within the context of Iranian painting. Additionally, the human figure emerges as a common and recurring theme in both periods. To gain a clearer understanding of the changes and transformations in the narrative patterns during these two periods, we can elaborate on these changes as follows: From the perspective of subject matter, the narrative patterns in the Isfahan school (as seen in the works of Reza Abbasi, Moin, and Aliquli Jabbadar) and in the second Pahlavi period (represented by Ziapour, Javadipur, and Esfandiyari) are grounded in common local themes and realistic, documented human figures. The narrative patterns in the Isfahan school, particularly in the works of Mohammad Zaman (depictions from the Shahnameh and others), reflect a return to the literary and pictorial traditions of Iran’s past, as illustrated in the works of Hossein Kazemi (depicting minors of the Safavid period).
The themes employed in the narrative models of Isfahan school painters are diverse, encompassing various themes such as lyrical and poetic elements, documentary aspects, and a blend of Iranian and Western influences. In contrast, painters of the second Pahlavi period opted for a more uniform approach, drawing primarily from local and modern Iranian themes in their works. Regarding motifs, the works of Isfahan school painters predominantly utilize defined lines and a limited color palette. Conversely, the motifs in the works of second Pahlavi period painters often feature abstract forms and innovative techniques. In terms of narrative tone, the works of Isfahan school painters, particularly those of Reza Abbasi and Moin Moser, are characterized by a calm and distinctly Iranian structure and style. In contrast, the works of Mohammad Zaman and Aliquli Jabbadar tend toward European naturalism. During the second Pahlavi period, the narrative tone in the works of Ziapour, Javadipur, and Esfandiyari is heavily influenced by European painting styles, including Cubism and Expressionism.

Conclusion
In summary, the narrative pattern in the Isfahan school of painting, influenced by European artistic traditions, shows greater alignment with Iran’s past visual traditions. Conversely, the narrative pattern in the painting of the second Pahlavi period is associated with confusion and distress regarding Iranian structure and identity.

The Biodeterioration Process of Cultural-Historical Textiles and the Effect of Nanomaterials in their Conservation

Somayeh Baseri

Abstract
Many important materials throughout the world are composed of a variety of textiles, which are stored and presented in museum collections, galleries, and libraries. These textiles are one of the most important elements of cultural heritage and interpret essential objects that document the past human life, artistic creations, international trade, agricultural development, technological developments, and their cultural and social values. As a result, it is necessary to study and apply suitable methods to protect and conserve these kinds of unique heritage textiles for our future generations. The method of conservation of these cultural-historical textiles is one of the most versatile branches of conservation and depends on various parameters. A number of bio-deterioration of cultural-historical textiles and also the disadvantages of conservation methods on these objects, human health and the environment, show the need for evaluating the bio-degradation mechanism of different microorganisms on these kinds of textiles and the use of latest methods for their conservation. In this way, the present work aims to investigate how cultural-historical textiles have been degraded, as well as the latest conservation methods. To achieve the purpose of the research, the qualitative content analysis method was used. The main research questions are what is the mechanism of biodegradability process of textiles? What is the importance of nano technologies in the protection of historical textiles? The results showed that one of the newest and most effective methods of protecting cultural-historical textiles against erosion caused by biological factors is the use of nanomaterials. These panicles have been intensively studied for various textile applications and demonstrated to provide multi-functional performance such as self-cleaning, release of dirty, protection against ultraviolet rays, antimicrobial properties, long-lasting, and multi-functional performance without compromising the intrinsic properties of the textile, which can be utilized to protect the cultural-historical textiles and slow down their degradation processes.
Keywords: Museum, Cultural-Historical Textiles, Conservation, Microorganisms, Nanomaterials.

Introduction
Since prehistoric times and in all cultures, textiles have played an important role in the traditions and life. They have been considered one of the most important elements of cultural heritage that in different periods of a country history have usually been a number of antique textiles, such as decorative and artistic fabrics, clothing, carpets, tapestries, ecclesiastical vestments, woman’s belts, bags, and paintings. They are mainly obtained from tombs, archaeological excavations, mansions, crypts, sunken ships, and churches. Although, these valuable textile artefacts interpret essential objects that document the past human life, artistic creations, international trade, agricultural development, technological developments, and their cultural and social values but they are considered to be degradable materials due to a combination of various pollutions, biological, physical, environmental, and chemical parameters. The challenge has been to develop effective strategies for the conservation of these cultural-historical textiles, considering the strategies depend on several factors such as storage conditions, textile ages, the chemical types of their fibers and also their history period of use. There are different chemical and physical methods to protect from the historical textiles (Gutarowska 2017: 2388-2406; Karbowska 2011: 223; Sequeira 2012: 67; Valentin 1999: 85; Wirtanen 2003: 293). Nowadays, nanomaterials and technologies are becoming more important than the physical and chemical methods due to their multi-functional performance such as self-cleaning, release of dirty, protection against ultraviolet rays, antimicrobial properties, long-lasting, and also due to their multi-functional performance without compromising the intrinsic properties of the textile, which improves the conservation process of cultural- historical textiles and slow down their degradation processes (Lite et al., 2022: 610; Gutarowska 2014: 277; Lite et al., 2022: 609; Zambrano et al., 2020: 9817; Syafiuddin 2019: 794).
Following this tendency, there are several worldwide studies available on this regard but very limited studies have been done in Iran. These studies have been mainly investigated the effects of optimal environmental conditions, the atmospheric pollutants, and ultraviolet rays on the conservation process of textiles (Kianoush 2008; Samanian and Bahmani 2018; Hamzovi 2019). This is in while; the majority of Iranian studies have various drawbacks in terms of evaluating the bio-degradation mechanism of different microorganisms on the historical textiles and the use of latest methods for their conservation. In this regard, the present study attempts to disclose how cultural-historical textiles have been degraded, as well as the latest conservation methods by using descriptive and analytical method and also based on library information.

Discussion
The term biodegradation is defined as an irreversible process leading to a significant change of the material properties by the action of vital activities of microorganisms (through enzymatic or metabolic action)، (Zambrano et al., 2020: 9789). This biodegradation of organic compounds frequently causes the conversion of many of oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur components in the primary molecules to the inorganic products and also creates of new cell material. In general, stages of biodegradability of materials can be expressed in the following (Fig. 1)، (Nofal 2022: 5-6):
A) Primary stage: Substance chemical structure alteration resulting in substance removal of a definite property.
B) Environmentally acceptable stage: The biodegrading process to the extent of elimination of specific unacceptable compounds properties. This process is similar to the primary biodegradation approach, and it depends on the environmental conditions.
C) Ultimate is full compound decomposition or breakdown into simple molecules fully reduced or oxidized (such as CO2/methane, nitrate/NH4+, and H2O).
The textile biodegradation process depends on the composition of the findings and the storage conditions and can occur slowly or quickly in the three following stages: 1) bio-deterioration and bio-fragmentation, 2) assimilation, and 3) Mineralization. (Lite et al., 2022: 608). Microorganisms digest the organic products of plastic degradation under aerobic or anaerobic conditions (Zambrano et al., 2020: 9790). The process of decomposing organic matter in the existence of oxygen is called aerobic bio-degradation. Anaerobic respiration is the practice of decomposing compounds by the action of microorganisms in oxygen absence and bacteria and fungi use the acceptor of an electron other than O2 as a chemical entitle (Nofal 2022: 7).
Nanotechnology is revolutionizing materials science in a pervasive way, in a manner similar to polymer chemistry’s revolution of materials science over the preceding century. The continuous development of novel nanoparticle-based materials and the study of physicochemical phenomena at the nanoscale are creating new approaches to conservation science, leading to new methodologies that can “revert” the degradation processes of the works of art, in most cases “restoring” them to their original magnificent appearance (Giorgi et al., 2010: 695). The most intensely studied nano-structures for textile artefact conservation are metal nano-particles (AgNPs), metal oxides (zinc oxide, magnesium oxide, and titanium dioxide), hydroxide nanoparticles (calcium hydroxide and barium hydroxide) and modified nano-clays due to their remarkable antimicrobial properties, UV-absorbers, water-repellents, and dirt repellents (Lite et al., 2022: 609; Giorgi et al., 2010: 702-703; Palladino et al., 2020: 3).

Conclusion
Our country, with its ancient history, is one of the most important centers with rich cultural-historical works in the world. A large part of these works are textiles which can be degraded using microorganisms due to their chemical structure. More and more studies are necessary for the field of historical textile conservation to preserve the memory of our predecessors, maintain up-to-date knowledge regarding new methods, and for future generations. Most of the studies conducted in Iran, have been investigated the effects of optimal environmental conditions, atmospheric pollutants, and ultraviolet rays on the conservation process of textiles. This is in while; the majority of Iranian studies have various drawbacks in terms of evaluating the bio-degradation mechanism of different microorganisms on the historical textiles and the use of latest methods for their conservation. In this way, the present work attempts to take a step towards the existing gaps. According to the results of this research, it can be concluded that the term biodegradation is defined as an irreversible process leading to a significant change of the material properties by the action of vital activities of microorganisms. This process occurs in the three stages i. e. bio-deterioration and bio-fragmentation, assimilation, and mineralization. The mineralization catabolic pathway depends on the environment where the microorganisms can grow and they digest the organic products of plastic degradation under aerobic or anaerobic conditions. During both processes, aerobic or anaerobic, microorganisms need a carbon source for growth and reproduction.
In order to reduce the biodegradability of textiles, several physical and chemical conservation methods have been reported in the literature. The main method of preservation is maintaining the findings a microclimate to limit degradation by adjusting the brightness, humidity, and temperature of the area in which they are stored or exposed. Recently, special attention has been given to nanomaterials. Nanotechnology is revolutionizing materials science in a pervasive way, in a manner similar to polymer chemistry’s revolution of materials science over the preceding century. The continuous development of novel nanoparticle-based materials and the study of physicochemical phenomena at the nanoscale are creating new approaches to conservation science, leading to new methodologies that can “revert” the degradation processes of the works of art, in most cases “restoring” them to their original magnificent appearance. The most intensely studied nano-structures for textile conservation are metals, metal oxides, hydroxide nanoparticles, and modified nano-clays due to their remarkable antimicrobial properties, UV-absorbers, water-repellents, and dirt repellents.