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Showing 6 results for Archaeology
Application of X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) in Cultural Heritage and Archaeology Studies
Fatemeh Hajian , Hamed Amirkhani ,
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Abstract
Diffraction-based techniques are fundamental tools for the characterization and understanding of materials of different nature, including those relevant to cultural heritage. Both conservation science and archaeometry may extensively profit from the information provided by diffraction techniques. The various methods and techniques of single-crystal and powder diffraction as applied to cultural heritage materials are briefly described with reference to specific examples, focusing on the extracted information in terms of (1) phase identification and quantification of crystalline compounds and complex polyphasic mixtures, (2) the texture and orientation of the crystalline phases, (3) the atomic and molecular structure of the phases involved, and (4) the physical microstructural state of the material in terms of crystallite size and accumulated strain. This paper presents a review of X-ray techniques used in art and archaeology and their applications as a non-destructive research tool in examining artistic and ancient objects. XRD is a standard procedure that provides information about the manufacturing process and condition of objects without physical contact, as well as insights into material composition and crystalline structure, making it widely used by archaeologists, curators, and conservators. The present paper aims to discuss the contribution of X-ray diffraction to cultural heritage and archaeology studies, based on personal experiences and those of other colleagues with various crystalline and non-crystalline materials. For this reason, the paper presents only a selection of cases identified by X-ray diffraction in cultural heritage conservation studies. It should be noted that X-ray diffraction plays a critical role in the analysis and characterization of these diverse materials. Another important goal of this work is to encourage in-depth studies on the use of X-ray techniques in the study of historical, archaeological, and artistic materials.

Editor’s Note: Addressing Decorated Plaster Walls in Archaeological Excavations
Mehdi Razani,
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Abstract
The conservation of mural paintings on plaster substrates uncovered during archaeological excavations, particularly those executed in watercolor, tempera, or oil-based techniques, necessitates a comprehensive understanding of plaster’s properties and its interaction with environmental factors. Plaster, as calcium sulfate dehydrate (CaSO₄·2H₂O), is a crystalline and porous material that poses unique challenges in restoration due to its high sensitivity to moisture, temperature, and biological agents. These characteristics, combined with the diversity of pigment layers and organic or oil-based binders, demand multifaceted conservation approaches. This note seeks to problematize the issue in a general sense while highlighting some common challenges and solutions.

Restoration and Stabilization of a Stone Achaemenid Door Jamb at Shahr-e- Istakhr (Marvdasht, Fars)
Abdolmajid Abedi , Maryam Ferasat ,
Volume 5, Issue 1 (3-2022)
Abstract
values and the necessary actions to preserve and transfer these values to the future. These strategies are known in conservation and restoration literature in  various terms, including conservation management planning. Undoubtedly, presenting a conservation and restoration plan for a site with extensive material value is the reason for this research and restoration report. By collecting primary information related to the recognition of the site and conservation, a program will be presented as general solutions for conservation and introduction of the site. Although such research and conservation efforts are preliminary, they can be considered as the first step towards serious national and international actions to protect, restore, and introduce valuable ancient sites

Technical Report Conservation-Restoration Practices in Trench 12 Excavations at Qara Tepe Sagzabad, Qazvin Plain (2018)
Ramin Mohammadi Sefidkhani, Mostafa Dehpahlavan,
Volume 7, Issue 3 (11-2024)
Abstract
Conservation in archaeological excavations involves creative and rapid methods aimed at minimal intervention and maximum preservation of findings until their transfer to well-equipped and specialized laboratories. Given that the first professional interaction with discovered artifacts falls within the realm of conservation and restoration, and considering that all related actions, including comprehensive and scientific sampling, ensure the preservation of both hidden and visible data, it is essential to focus on expanding methods and practices in this field. The lack of reports on practical conservation measures in archaeological excavations, and occasionally the absence of specialists on-site or acceptable specialized actions, highlights the necessity of paying greater attention to this area. This article aims to document the conservation and restoration measures undertaken in Trench 12 of the Qareh Tepe Segaabad cemetery in the Qazvin Plain, detailing the processes of grave block-lifting, ceramic bandaging, stabilization and consolidation of ceramic, metal, and bone artifacts, and their retrieval. The tools used in the conservation and restoration of the mentioned trench include transparent adhesive tape, aluminum foil, various brushes, tweezers, cotton, polyester fibers, banana crates, injection syringes, jute sacks, wooden skewers, scalpel blades, and pipettes. The chemical materials used for joining, stabilization, and consolidation include alcohol, acetone, toluene, transparent epoxy adhesive (Ghaffari brand), Paraloid B72 resin, polyurethane resin, and plaster. Conservation in archaeological excavations involves creative and rapid methods aimed at minimal intervention and maximum preservation of findings until their transfer to well-equipped and specialized laboratories. Given that the first professional interaction with discovered artifacts falls within the realm of conservation and restoration, and considering that all related actions, including comprehensive and scientific sampling, ensure the preservation of both hidden and visible data, it is essential to focus on expanding methods and practices in this field. The lack of reports on practical conservation measures in archaeological excavations, and occasionally the absence of specialists on-site or acceptable specialized actions, highlights the necessity of paying greater attention to this area. This article aims to document the conservation and restoration measures undertaken in Trench 12 of the Qareh Tepe Segaabad cemetery in the Qazvin Plain, detailing the processes of grave block-lifting, ceramic bandaging, stabilization and consolidation of ceramic, metal, and bone artifacts, and their retrieval. The tools used in the conservation and restoration of the mentioned trench include transparent adhesive tape, aluminum foil, various brushes, tweezers, cotton, polyester fibers, banana crates, injection syringes, jute sacks, wooden skewers, scalpel blades, and pipettes. The chemical materials used for joining, stabilization, and consolidation include alcohol, acetone, toluene, transparent epoxy adhesive (Ghaffari brand), Paraloid B72 resin, polyurethane resin, and plaster.

Environmental Studies and Their Role in the Conservation of Archaeological Sites: A Case Study of Takht-e Soleyman
Hamid Amanollahi , Hassan Karimian , Fatemeh Sheikh Ahmadi ,
Volume 8, Issue 3 (11-2025)
Abstract
Takht-e Soleyman, located in a mountainous area of northwestern Iran, is one of the country’s most important historical and cultural centers and has been studied from various scientific perspectives. This research aims to identify the environmental characteristics influencing human settlement and to examine the impacts of climatic and environmental conditions on the preservation of historical monuments. Findings indicate that the large spring of Takht-e Soleyman and several karst springs, by providing mineral-rich water, have played a significant role in the formation of settlements and the chemical composition of the soil, thereby affecting the region’s biodiversity and vegetation cover. Adequate precipitation has further enriched the vegetation and created favorable habitats for various animal species. The main objectives of this study include identifying the environmental potentials that contributed to settlement formation and proposing adaptive strategies to local climatic conditions for the conservation, restoration, and management of the complex. Given Takht-e Soleyman’s specific climate—characterized by long winters and heavy snowfall—the key question is how to ensure effective preservation of its historical assets. The research methodology is historical and descriptive-analytical, combining library studies with field observations. Comparative analysis of climatic parameters such as temperature, humidity, precipitation, and solar radiation against international standards revealed that, if properly managed, certain climatic indices can help mitigate physical deterioration of the monuments. Accordingly, practical strategies based on quantitative and qualitative indicators have been proposed to reduce adverse environmental impacts. By integrating historical, architectural, and environmental data, this study highlights the critical role of environmental studies in safeguarding archaeological sites—particularly Takht-e Soleyman—and offers scientific and practical solutions to ensure the sustainable preservation of this valuable heritage.

 
A Strategic Framework for Developing National Heritage Conservation Documents for Iranian Archaeological Excavations: A Guide for Stakeholders and Policymakers
Mehdi Razani, Hamid Fadaei,
Volume 8, Issue 4 (3-2026)
Abstract
Archaeological sites, as sensitive areas embodying diverse cultural, historical, and scientific values require coherent policies and mechanisms for their protection. Although in recent decades the importance of conserving such sites has been highlighted in both cultural discourse and professional practice, the absence of specific, coordinated strategic documents has led to various challenges during and after excavations. This article, grounded in field experiences and interdisciplinary collaboration among specialists and practitioners, underscores the necessity of formulating a National Conservation Document for Archaeological Excavations. The primary goal of this document is to institutionalize conservation as an integral component of the archaeological excavation process an approach that begins before excavation and continues through post-excavation long-term monitoring. This paper presents a structured proposal aimed at establishing a comprehensive framework for defining responsibilities, scheduling conservation actions, and promoting inter-sectoral coordination in conservation and restoration activities during excavations. The principles, objectives, and practical recommendations of the proposed document are presented in the form of eight main articles, each accompanied by relevant clauses and provisions.

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