Historic bridges represent complex structural systems that have endured centuries of environmental exposure, functional transformation, and human intervention. Due to their structural configuration and location within dynamic riverine contexts, they are particularly vulnerable to natural forces, material decay, and incompatible repairs. Conservation doctrine has consistently emphasized that intervention must be grounded in knowledge. Documents such as the Venice Charter, the Burra Charter, the Nara Document on Authenticity, and the ICOMOS Principles for the Analysis and Restoration of Architectural Heritage stress that understanding a monument’s historical development, material composition, and structural performance is essential before any action is taken. Building on this understanding, the present study develops and applies an integrated damage diagnosis approach to the historic Bridge-Dam of Izadkhast. Although Iranian historic bridges have been widely studied, previous research has often addressed historical interpretation, qualitative assessment, and structural modeling separately. In many instances, laboratory testing and structural calculations were treated as isolated technical exercises rather than as components of conservation decision making. This separation has occasionally led to reinforcement strategies that exceed actual structural needs and conflict with principles such as minimal intervention and respect for authenticity. The principal research gap therefore lies in the absence of a coherent methodological framework that integrates historical studies, qualitative damage assessment, laboratory material testing, and quantitative structural behavior analysis into a unified and conservation oriented decision making model. The Izadkhast Bridge-Dam was selected as the case study because of its historical and structural importance. Located along the Historic route from Isfahan to Shiraz via Izadkhast, it once played a strategic role in regional communication and maintained a functional relationship with the nearby caravanserai. Built across a seasonal river prone to flooding, the structure was originally designed to serve caravan traffic. In later periods, however, the passage of automobiles and heavier transport introduced load conditions that had not been anticipated in the original architectural conception. As a result, the bridge was subjected to stresses exceeding its intended structural capacity. Despite these pressures, it remained functional for centuries. Only in recent decades have climatic variability, renewed water flow after extended drought, inappropriate restoration efforts, and insufficient river management significantly increased its vulnerability. The methodology adopted in this research consisted of six interconnected stages: (1) historical analysis and investigation of the structural evolution of the monument; (2) direct observation and qualitative assessment of the current condition; (3) qualitative and semi-quantitative analysis of mortars and qualitative assessment of materials; (4) structural analysis and evaluation of the overall structural behavior; (5) safety assessment through quantitative analyses and structural testing; and (6) final judgment and data integration. In this method, Laboratory investigations were conducted to determine the physical and chemical properties of mortars and bricks, and structural behavior under gravity, seismic forces, wind, and hydraulic actions was analyzed through finite element modeling using ANSYS software. The findings demonstrate that a comprehensive understanding of the monument requires the simultaneous interpretation of historical documentation, field evidence, material characteristics, and structural modeling results. Historical analysis revealed that major damage resulted from changes in function, excessive loading beyond traditional use patterns, destructive floods particularly the flood of 1956 CE. and alterations in river morphology caused by human intervention. Qualitative assessment identified inconsistencies in restoration management, incomplete conservation measures, deterioration of mortars, and neglect of riverbed maintenance as significant contributors to the bridge’s current condition. Material analyses indicated that lime mortars (cold sarooj) were intentionally employed in water exposed sections, while gypsum–lime mortars were used in arches and passageways, reflecting functional adaptation to environmental conditions. Although bricks quality was relatively low due to manufacturing and firing limitations, this characteristic forms part of the bridge’s original material system and does not in itself indicate structural weakness. Structural analyses showed that the bridge performs satisfactorily under gravitational and seismic loads. The vulnerable structural points was identified in relation to hydrodynamic flood forces and at the junction between the end piers and the natural riverbanks.
The integratetion of the obtained results indicate that most observed damages do not stem from inherent structural vulnerability, but rather from the disruption of the bridge’s historical equilibrium. Changes in functional loads, incompatible restoration materials, interruption of structural continuity, and hydromorphological alterations in the riverbed have collectively intensified deterioration. Numerical modeling confirmed that heavy structural reinforcement or radical alteration of the structural system is unnecessary. Instead, conservation efforts should focus on correcting inappropriate past restorations, locally reinforcing critical points, stabilizing and organizing the riverbed and establishing a continuous maintenance system. This study demonstrates that that quantitative structural analysis can meaningfully inform conservation decisions only when interpreted in direct connection with historical understanding and material characterization. Detached numerical assessments risk misdiagnosis and unnecessary intervention. Accordingly, the research advocates a shift from reactive, episodic restoration toward preventive and integrated management of historic bridges. Ultimately, this research proposes a transferable analytical framework for the conservation of historic bridges in Iran and comparable contexts. By integrating historical research, qualitative damage assessment, laboratory based material evaluation, structural stability assessment, and finite element analysis into a unified diagnostic process, the study provides a methodological model that supports minimal, authenticity compatible, and scientifically grounded conservation strategies, while preventing costly and irreversible interventions.

The idea behind the principle of sustainability - which has shaped the entire body of contemporary conservation ethics- is to consider future users when making decisions and interventions. This principle tries to prevent extreme decisions based on taste and prejudice or interventions based on current knowledge. Ethical principles such as "reversibility" and "least intervention" have been shaped by different theoretical approaches and are widely used in conservation literature today. However, these fundamental principles, as influential variables in ethical and technical decision-making, have become a subject of debate and criticism in contemporary conservation thought. The aim of the present study is to address these criticisms from the perspective of sustainability in contemporary conservation by using the method of "deconstruction". Deconstruction is a critical thinking that examines variables in detail with the aim of showing gaps and contradictions. Having a critical approach means examining the causal relationships of issues and revealing what has remained hidden. Therefore, deconstruction does not want to destroy the truth, but rather restores it. Therefore, this research aims to reveal challenges such as the "subject of conservation", "reasons", "objectives" and "method" that have made the ethical principles of conservation contradictory, opaque and sometimes impossible, and also to criticize and deconstruct the principles that were accepted as axiomatic and unquestionable in classical conservation, trying to denaturalize what has always been natural. The present study has gone to the deconstructionist approach in order to examine the criticisms because it believes that with the deconstructionist approach, firstly, the real thing or, in other words, the "thing in itself" in the sense of pure truth, independent of human perception and senses, does not exist; secondly, theorists such as Marcuse (1988) and Nietzsche (1992) believe that what is known as truth within a culture is a form of communication and social peace contract between people. All moral standards are created by specific conditions (such as culture) and are solely related to these conditions. In this thinking, awareness of indeterminacy and uncertainty is the most real characteristic and truest characteristic of cultural and artistic phenomena. An issue in which moral standards and valuation do not remain in the monopoly of fixed principles and predetermined functions and roles and do not accept a fixed definition, but rather act as a fluid and changing factor in their cultural and situational context. The result is that contemporary ethics, with greater flexibility. Ethics are not applied as static and mechanical principles at the time of intervention, but are prepared to face unpredictable behavior by "adaptation" and "compatibility" and are considered as added values, that is, they are not mandatory in any case and can be ignored depending on the circumstances. Ethical principles and criteria such as minimal intervention, reversibility in interventions, similarity of materials and conservation techniques to the original part.

Historic urban fabrics and architectural heritage are subject to a wide range of international charters and conventions that establish guiding principles for conservation, restoration, documentation, reconstruction, and cultural tourism. Foundational documents such as the Venice Charter, the Nara Document on Authenticity, UNESCO conventions, and the Burra Charter emphasize concepts including authenticity, integrity, accurate documentation, and the responsible use of heritage resources. In practice, however, the implementation of these principles has become increasingly complex due to factors such as physical deterioration, natural hazards, restricted accessibility, and the growing pressures of mass tourism.
In recent years, advances in immersive digital technologies have introduced alternative approaches to addressing these challenges. Among them, the Metaverse understood as a three-dimensional digital environment integrating Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) has gained attention as a platform for experiencing, documenting, and interpreting cultural heritage. Unlike conventional visualization or presentation tools, Metaverse-based environments allow users to engage with heritage spaces interactively and remotely, often through digital avatars, thereby expanding possibilities for access and interpretation beyond physical constraints.
Although immersive technologies have been increasingly employed in heritage-related projects, their relationship with the normative frameworks defined by international heritage documents has not been sufficiently examined. Existing studies tend to focus on technical capabilities or user experience, while questions of compatibility with established conservation principles remain underexplored. This study seeks to address this gap by examining how Metaverse-related capabilities correspond to the requirements articulated in international charters and conventions concerning historic environments.

Over the past two decades, paleoparasitological research in Iran has expanded significantly in both scale and scope. Despite this progress, investigations across the Iranian Plateau have faced ongoing challenges, and relatively few findings have been published. One major limiting factor is the extensive degradation of biological micro-remains caused by the region’s prevailing climatic conditions, which are generally unfavorable for preservation at most archaeological sites. Notably, the most significant discoveries have come from exceptional preservation contexts, such as the Chehrabad salt mine in Zanjan, renowned for the discovery of the Salt Men mummies, has yielded a wealth of well-preserved biological materials. The high salinity and stable temperatures at the site have created ideal conditions for the survival of delicate micro-remains over millennia. These rare cases emphasize the importance of focusing excavations in environments more conducive to organic preservation. More recently, excavations at Shahne-Pushteh an Iron Age burial site revealed human skeletal remains, presenting a rare opportunity to analyze soil sediment samples microscopically from around the bones. The goal was to detect parasitic remains as indicators of health, hygiene, and diet among the site's ancient population.
Although no definitive internal parasite remains were found, several nematode larvae, mites, and a single palynomorph resembling an Ascaris‌ sp. egg were observed. While not conclusive evidence of intestinal parasitism, these findings highlight the taphonomic processes that affect micro-remains. They also underscore the crucial role of environmental and soil conditions in the preservation of biological material in archaeological contexts.

Owing to its vast and rich mineral resources, the Kerman region is regarded as one of the most significant areas for the identification and extraction of metals in Iran. The city of Bam, located in the southeastern part of this province, has long served as a strategic center linking southeastern Iran with Sistan due to its distinctive geological and geomorphological conditions. Archaeological surveys conducted in the central district of Bam County during 2018–2019 aimed to identify ancient mining areas and metallurgical smelting centers. Drawing upon the results of these field investigations, the present study undertakes chemical and mineralogical laboratory analyses of four ceramic nail samples recovered from four areas associated with metallurgical activities. These analyses were carried out to determine the function of the ceramic nails and to investigate the extraction processes involved. The studied samples were examined through petrographic and geochemical analyses using the ICP-OES method across the four identified sites. Petrographic examination of the ceramic nails indicates high firing temperatures during manufacture and reveals a porphyritic texture containing predominantly igneous inclusions as temper materials. The results of the chemical analyses demonstrate that approximately 72% of the chemical composition of these ceramic nails consists of zinc, thereby confirming the intentional extraction of this metal. The existence of sufficient technological knowledge for the oxidation of zinc and the production of Tutia (zinc oxide) at these sites may indicate the emergence of one of the most sophisticated and technologically advanced metallurgical extraction processes in the ancient world. The analytical results obtained from the ceramic nails recovered from several of these sites further suggest that they were specifically employed in the extraction and production of zinc oxide (Tutia).

The Chah Jamal Khoshomang metal smelting sites are located in Yazd Province, in the Kharanaq district east of Ardakan County, approximately 25 km south of Saghand village and 120 km from the city of Yazd. This study aims to identify the smelting technology and the provenance of the ores used at these sites through field investigations, petrographic analysis, and chemical analysis by inductively (ICP-OES) of slag samples collected from two smelting sites. Petrographic results reveal the presence of the silicate minerals pyroxene and fayalite within a glassy matrix, together with metallic phases comprising native copper, copper sulfide minerals (chalcocite and covellite), and the iron-bearing mineral wüstite. The high proportions of silica and iron oxides in the chemical analysis results, together with the presence of CaO and MgO, indicate the use of siliceous and carbonate fluxes to reduce slag viscosity; combined with the observed mineralogical assemblage, this evidence suggests a smelting temperature of approximately 11001200 °C and a reducing, relatively controlled furnace atmosphere. These smelting sites, which were established for copper extraction, also contain lead, zinc, and silver, indicating that the raw ore feeding these furnaces was derived from a polymetallic deposit. Regarding the provenance of this raw material, ancient exploratory tunnels and pits located approximately two kilometers from the sites can be identified as the local source of feedstock for these furnaces. The findings of this study advance our understanding of ancient metal extraction technology in the central Iranian plateau.

Persepolis is a symbol of the glory and grandeur of ancient Iran. Persepolis is located next to the Marvdasht Plain and at the foot of Mount Rahmat in Fars Province, located in the city of Marvdasht, Iran. Unfortunately, the excessive extraction of groundwater in the Marvdasht Plain to provide water for agriculture has caused subsidence in this plain. Considering the importance of protecting ancient and historical monuments, it is important to investigate the extent of subsidence of the Marvdasht Plain within the Persepolis and Naqsh-e Rostam World Cultural Heritage Site in order to assess its impact on possible damage to this site. Calculations indicate widespread subsidence of the Marvdasht Plain with a maximum rate of 22.6 cm per year. Also, the results of the calculations indicate the expansion of subsidence of the Marvdasht Plain towards Persepolis and Naqsh-e Rostam in recent years. On the other hand, changes in the subsidence rate near these ancient monuments are significant. In order to preserve and protect these valuable ancient monuments, measures to combat the destructive effects of subsidence on them and sustainable management of the region's groundwater resources are proposed to prevent the subsidence of the Marvdasht Plain.

Education in the field of conservation and restoration of historical monuments plays a fundamental role in the preservation of cultural heritage. Due to the sensitivity of the subject and the scientific, technical, and cultural complexities involved, curriculum design in this field must be based on strong theoretical foundations and informed by successful international experiences. In recent decades, various countries have responded to the professional demands of this discipline by developing specialized programs in universities and higher education institutions. However, cultural, technical, and structural differences among these programs highlight the necessity of conducting comparative studies and critically evaluating curriculum models. Conservation and restoration of historical and cultural heritage is an interdisciplinary field that requires precise and goal-oriented curriculum planning for the training of specialists. This study aims to examine different curriculum models and conduct a comparative analysis of global experiences in the education of conservation and restoration. Although such models have not yet become institutionalized in Iran, and only a few instructors have occasionally experimented with these approaches, their application has been temporary and often limited to one or two semesters. Traditional teaching methods still dominate the academic landscape. Accordingly, this research first introduces several theoretical curriculum models, including the master-apprentice model, service-learning, praxis, and outcome-based learning. It then presents a comparative analysis of educational programs at various universities to identify their strengths, weaknesses, and effective patterns. The findings reveal that successful programs tend to establish a balanced integration of theoretical knowledge, practical skills, and interdisciplinary perspectives. Based on these results, it is recommended that the revision of conservation education curricula in Iran draw on international experiences—many of which employ diverse or hybrid models—while being carefully adapted to local contexts.
 

Calligraphy art in Islamic architecture has been existed in Kufic form especially in the 13thAD., this was the time of the Mongol Ilkhanids in Iran. The evidence for Square Kufic under Ilkhanid religious freedom bear variation of meanings which indicates the religious orientation of the constructors. Sometime between two square Kufic inscriptions on different buildings are seen similarity on the rules of design and religious orientation which suggest unique works of one calligrapher. One of the most innovative one is in the mausoleum PirBakran. A large square panel containing salutation on the Prophet Muhammad and Twelve Imams is in the main exterior of the mausoleum. A similar Square Kufic containing same salutation exist in the Haftshuiyeh Mosque in a Mihrab Panel. Both monuments are in two districts of the Isfahan province not far from each other.
The contribution of this work is to extract the pattern of a damaged Kufic calligraphy in Haftshuiyeh Mosque considering the similar inscription in the mausoleum of PirBakran. There are some other decorative motives on the Haftshuiyeh mihrab find similars in the ornament of the PriBakran. With attention to the Kufic calligraphy works of PirBakran and Haftshuiyeh, their similar unique content and similar designs of both inscriptions, support the suggestion that the inscription of Haftshuiyeh, may originate from the calligrapher of PirBakran mausoleum. The aim of this study is to describe, analyze and compare the inscription of Pirbakran with Haftshuiyeh in order to find the word formations and compositional schemes and the rules of calligrapher’s design. To identify different structure and variation of the alphabet of Kufic letters, each word has been studied as far as possible in the PirBakran and Haftshuiyeh. Following the calligrapher’s rules, forms of the words, authors redesign and give explanation on the missing part of the Haftshuiyeh inscriptions.