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Mahdi Razani, Alireza Baghbanan , Seyed Mohammad Amin Emami,
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Abstract
This study aims to utilize qualitative assessments derived from environmental evaluations and field tests to document the current state of damage, determine strength, and measure hardness in the external surfaces of the rock-cut architecture of the historic village of Kandovan, identifying and ranking the most significant damage factors. Environmental assessment forms were used for documenting the pathology, while a Schmidt hammer (Type L) was employed for qualitative field tests. The entire village was surveyed at 143 points. The results indicate that human activities are the primary cause of deterioration in Kandovan, with the hardness of the rock-cut surfaces classified as weak to very weak. The severe erosion of the outer surfaces of the rock houses is notable. Based on the data, the village was zoned into areas of low, moderate, and severe weathering in terms of surface strength, reflecting the extent of deterioration. Areas with greater exposure to water flows exhibit severe erosion and weathering, while those with less exposure to watercourses are classified as less weathered.
Mahdieh Shahreki Moghadam , Reza Khanjari Dolatabadi ,
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Abstract
The studied artifact is a stone bowl from the twelfth excavation season at Burnt City, Sistan, between 1997 and 2008, retrieved from trench NFB, burial 8509. Most stone artifacts in the past were made from gypsum alabaster or limestone marble, which are visually similar. Through sampling and thin-section petrography, the results revealed a layered limestone structure containing calcite and aragonite minerals, confirming the bowl’s marble composition. Regarding the manufacturing technology of marble artifacts, evidence of tool marks on the studied bowl suggests the use of tools such as hammers, chisels, drills, gouges, saws, and abrasives in the production of stone vessels.
Fatemeh Hajian , Hamed Amirkhani ,
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Abstract
Diffraction-based techniques are fundamental tools for the characterization and understanding of materials of different nature, including those relevant to cultural heritage. Both conservation science and archaeometry may extensively profit from the information provided by diffraction techniques. The various methods and techniques of single-crystal and powder diffraction as applied to cultural heritage materials are briefly described with reference to specific examples, focusing on the extracted information in terms of (1) phase identification and quantification of crystalline compounds and complex polyphasic mixtures, (2) the texture and orientation of the crystalline phases, (3) the atomic and molecular structure of the phases involved, and (4) the physical microstructural state of the material in terms of crystallite size and accumulated strain. This paper presents a review of X-ray techniques used in art and archaeology and their applications as a non-destructive research tool in examining artistic and ancient objects. XRD is a standard procedure that provides information about the manufacturing process and condition of objects without physical contact, as well as insights into material composition and crystalline structure, making it widely used by archaeologists, curators, and conservators. The present paper aims to discuss the contribution of X-ray diffraction to cultural heritage and archaeology studies, based on personal experiences and those of other colleagues with various crystalline and non-crystalline materials. For this reason, the paper presents only a selection of cases identified by X-ray diffraction in cultural heritage conservation studies. It should be noted that X-ray diffraction plays a critical role in the analysis and characterization of these diverse materials. Another important goal of this work is to encourage in-depth studies on the use of X-ray techniques in the study of historical, archaeological, and artistic materials.
Abdolbasir Hosseinbor, Hesam Aslani, Eshagh Mansouri,
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Abstract
The rock inscription, which forms the basis of this research, is located in the Pirghar region and was carved on a rock in Deh-Cheshmeh village under the orders of the leaders of the Bakhtiari Constitutional Movement. The current condition of this monument is not optimal; thus, a detailed and accurate study of the inscription, given its historical and cultural significance, is essential for its proper recognition and conservation. Based on topographic and field studies, the inscriptions have been subjected to erosion and deterioration due to surface water flow and frost. Among the most significant surface factors are snow accumulation, precipitation at higher elevations, seasonal flows on sloping surfaces leading to the monument, and frost during cold seasons, which cause erosion, deterioration, and serious damage to the inscriptions. This study is conducted within the framework of a quantitative research approach, utilizing field studies, environmental assessments, and the Geographic Information System (GIS). To this end, the area hosting the inscriptions was identified using field visits and GIS and RS tools, and the obtained data were evaluated based on the direction and extent of damage. Using GIS, the drainage of runoff from the basin, hydrological operations, elevation ratios of each basin, digital elevation model, slope, slope direction, basins, sub-basins, waterway outlets, and water flow direction in the region were determined. These data will contribute to the damage assessment and preventive conservation of the inscriptions.
Amirhossein Mojtahedzadeh,
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Abstract
The interest of Iranians in gemstones and precious and semi-precious stones has roots spanning thousands of years in the culture and history of this land. This has led to the accumulation of a vast treasure of unique jewelry and gemstones, recognized as a national and cultural asset, due to mineral resources and historical conquests. However, with recent discoveries and advancements in the field of gemstones and precious and semi-precious minerals, the conditions necessary for the conservation, protection, and display of this invaluable and unique heritage have undergone new transformations and progress. Implementing and adhering to these requirements in the country is essential for this field and is vital for preserving the authenticity and essence of these specimens due to their exceptional value. This applied research aims to explore transformations in the gemstone field, introduce new internationally adopted principles, and examine the modern global standards and conditions in this area. Gemstones can have organic or mineral origins and may be displayed in raw, cut, historical, or contemporary forms. This group also includes loose gemstones and those mounted in jewelry, highlighting the diverse range of existing artifacts. Based on the mentioned classifications, efforts are made today to establish ideal conditions tailored to the type of specimens. Factors such as lighting, display methods, gemstone restoration techniques, and temperature and humidity conditions directly impact the quality and essence of the specimens, ensuring their longevity and stability over time. Providing an appropriate environment and controlling all the aforementioned factors will guarantee the durability and value of the gemstones.
Mehdi Razani,
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Volume 1, Issue 2 (9-2018)
Abstract
The conservation of mural paintings on plaster substrates uncovered during archaeological excavations, particularly those executed in watercolor, tempera, or oil-based techniques, necessitates a comprehensive understanding of plaster’s properties and its interaction with environmental factors. Plaster, as calcium sulfate dehydrate (CaSO₄·2H₂O), is a crystalline and porous material that poses unique challenges in restoration due to its high sensitivity to moisture, temperature, and biological agents. These characteristics, combined with the diversity of pigment layers and organic or oil-based binders, demand multifaceted conservation approaches. This note seeks to problematize the issue in a general sense while highlighting some common challenges and solutions.
Marziyeh Chelbi, Mohammad Taghi Ashouri, Shahrzad Amin-Shirazi-Nejad, Fatemeh Alimirzaei,
Volume 2, Issue 4 (1-2020)
Volume 2, Issue 4 (1-2020)
Abstract
Storage facilities constitute a core element in the structure of any cultural, scientific, and research institution. Addressing their functions, optimizing their design, and equipping them to ensure the proper preservation of objects, as well as preventing damage and deterioration, is of paramount importance. The significance of storage facilities lies in the fact that the majority of objects and artifacts within a collection are preserved in storage. Consequently, these spaces must meet high standards of conservation and security and require continuous care and monitoring.This article examines, as a pilot case, the textile repository of the Anthropological Research Institute, which houses a large volume of textiles belonging to diverse Iranian ethnic groups and cultures, representing a collection of exceptional value and importance. The current storage facility is unsuitable for the preservation of this collection and requires redesign and renovation in line with the specific vulnerabilities of textiles and international preventive conservation standards. The ultimate aim of this study is to improve the storage conditions of the ethnographic clothing collection through a newly designed system that complies with these standards.The research methodology relies on a review of library resources and the findings of similar projects. Although deterioration is inevitable, particularly in sensitive objects such as textiles, implementing appropriate storage strategies and environmental control systems can significantly prolong the lifespan of these invaluable objects and slow down the process of degradation.
Elahhe Sadat Talebi Moqaddam,
Volume 2, Issue 4 (1-2020)
Volume 2, Issue 4 (1-2020)
Abstract
The Ma'raq gold-embroidered curtain (Code 031) is among the exquisite artifacts dating back to the Qajar period, preserved in the collection of the Astan Quds Razavi. Due to the use of this precious artistic artifact in the Astan Quds Razavi complex, over time and under various factors, it has sustained diverse damages. To preserve this valuable textile artifact, its restoration was carried out in the Textile Restoration Workshop of Astan Quds Razavi. This article, with a brief overview of the technology and pathology of the gold-embroidered curtain (Code 031), aims to examine the restoration methods applied to it based on field studies.
Hamid Fadaei, Amirhossein Karimi, Anahita Oliaei,
Volume 2, Issue 4 (1-2020)
Volume 2, Issue 4 (1-2020)
Abstract
A portion of the historical documents related to the history of Haft-Tepe Museum and the general state of cultural heritage in the region is preserved within the museum building. Following the establishment of the Chogha Zanbil Cultural Heritage Research Office in the museum—which had been closed during the eight-year imposed war—the organization of the remaining research objects, as well as the old documents, became a priority. This collection primarily includes administrative letters (in Persian and English), visitor statistics, letters of introduction, old object inventories, personnel files of former staff, and registers of correspondence and attendance. The existing documents, dating from 1970 to 1981, were kept under inadequate conditions. The collection was reviewed and systematically organized in two stages during 2001 and 2003, which is the focus of the present article. These documents are significant as they reflect aspects of the museum’s history and events. Due to the fragility and deterioration of many items, they were categorized, catalogued, and initially examined before being placed in transparent plastic covers and archived in corresponding binders. Additionally, digital scanning and the recording of important correspondence were undertaken as part of the organization process. These measures have facilitated a deeper study of the museum’s past, its collections, and the status of regional cultural heritage in the years preceding the revolution and the onset of the imposed war.
Mehdi Razani,
Volume 2, Issue 4 (1-2020)
Volume 2, Issue 4 (1-2020)
Abstract
The Journal of Knowledge of Conservation and Restoration, as a specialized publication in the field of cultural heritage, experienced significant interruptions in its publication schedule between 2017 and 2020 due to structural and operational challenges. In 2017, 2019, and 2020, only one issue was published each year, while in 2018 no issue was released at all. These interruptions resulted in delays in the dissemination of submitted articles. To address these shortcomings, the decision was made in August 2024 to publish compensatory special issues. These special issues were prepared and released with the collaboration of invited guest editors and included a selection of outstanding papers presented at the 10th and 12th Conferences on Conservation and Restoration, along with newly submitted articles. Consequently, from August 2024 to September 2025, the backlog of delayed issues was resolved with the publication of a total of 31 issues, comprising 10 special issues and 21 regular issues. This initiative was undertaken to restore the trust of the scholarly community, disseminate postponed articles, and contribute to the advancement of knowledge in conservation and restoration.
Parsa Pahlavan, Hamid Fadaei, Stefania Manzi, Maria Chiara Bignozzi,
Volume 3, Issue 1 (6-2020)
Volume 3, Issue 1 (6-2020)
Abstract
In this study, considerations for design, characterization, and in-situ application of sustainable materials for restorative use in the Pasargadae world heritage site are discussed. Based on some prior studies on sustainable waste-based restorative mortars, air lime mortars were made from lime putty, mixture of stones from the site, and additive sesame oils. The mortar samples were characterized in terms of microstructure, carbonation rate, hydric properties, and durability. The characterization aimed at compatibility assessment of mortars with a real situation. Considering the variety of natural conditions parameters compared to the laboratory, the mortar samples were also characterized in the site conditions. The results suggested the laboratory characterization, if done properly, can provide a promising degree of representation for the field conditions.
Monina Meyhami , Danial Harandi,
Volume 4, Issue 3 (12-2021)
Volume 4, Issue 3 (12-2021)
Abstract
Photographs are significant documents for visual recovery of past cultures and civilizations in contemporary history. Structural changes in historical photographs, influenced by various factors over time, lead to numerous damages that may result in aesthetic alterations. Accordingly, this report aims to present the conservation process undertaken on three photographs dating back to the Qajar era. The photographs suffered from damage such as dirt and water stains, degradation of the gelatin layer, tears, and high acidity. To address these issues, distilled water, alcohol, and acetone were used to clean the surface contaminants. Additionally, calcium hydroxide was applied in two forms: dry and in the distilled water, for deacidification of the cardboard substrate. Acid-free cardboard and specially treated tissue paper were also used to cover for the missing parts, along with Klucel-G polymer. Finally, to ensure better protection, all photographs, they were mounted in passe-partout boards.
Hamid Fadaei, Ali Eghra,
Volume 4, Issue 3 (12-2021)
Volume 4, Issue 3 (12-2021)
Abstract
The vast expanse of the Persepolis World Heritage site and its three buffer zones, along with the numerous historical remains within these boundaries—including hills, sites, and various historical mines—have presented significant challenges for the registration, documentation, monitoring, and ongoing care of these cultural assets, despite enhancing the region’s historical and cultural capacities. Although the registration and documentation of the artifacts in this area have long been a focus of the Persepolis World Heritage Site, the sheer number of artifacts has highlighted the need for more advanced documentation tools and methods. Drone-based documentation was one of the selected approaches to expand documentation activities in this area, and a three-day conference and workshop were held to discuss related topics. The most important topics discussed at the conference included: the necessity of documentation, the role of documentation in global registration processes, flight regulations and legal aspects of drone-based documentation, and case studies of using drones for studying and documenting cultural heritage. These topics were presented by 20 speakers during the scientific program of the conference. At the conclusion of the conference and workshop, a six-point declaration was prepared, with the text drafted and signed by representatives of the institutions present. This declaration emphasized the need to pay greater attention to documentation as a tool for research, understanding cultural and natural heritage, optimal presentation, and preservation.
Fezeh Rahimi, Nasrin Noohi,
Volume 4, Issue 4 (2-2022)
Volume 4, Issue 4 (2-2022)
Abstract
Biological contamination of paper artifacts is a significant threat, causing not only damage to the paper itself but also posing health risks to conservators and restorers who are in close contact with them. Therefore, identifying the type of contamination is crucial for effective preservation and restoration. This article focuses on identifying biological contamination in a collection of paper artifacts from the Imamzadeh Mohammad in Tafresh, Iran. Preliminary examinations revealed evidence of biological contamination, including stains resulting from biological activity. These stains are a consequence of biodeterioration, leading to a reduction in the structural and artistic quality of the artifacts. To investigate the biological contamination, samples were taken from areas suspected of contamination and cultured on Sabouraud dextrose agar (for fungal contamination) and nutrient agar (for bacterial contamination). After incubation, the grown colonies were examined and identified. The results of the identification of isolated fungal and bacterial showed contamination with various fungi, including Penicillium, Aspergillus, Cladosporium, and yeasts, as well as bacteria belonging to the Actinomycetes and Bacillus genus.
Maryam Dara,
Volume 5, Issue 1 (3-2022)
Volume 5, Issue 1 (3-2022)
Abstract
An Urartian cuneiform rock inscription was reported in March 2021 in Gharejelou, close to Shahverdi Gheshlagh village, Eastern Azerbaijan Province, Iran. This site has been previously surveyed and also the legal excavations took place. The epigraphy of the inscription belongs to the first years ofUrartian reign and the last half of it. As the close by Urartian inscriptions belong to Argishti II it is possible that this inscription as well was written in the same era. The inscription is badly damaged mainly by sediment. The damages make the actual reading of the inscription almost impossible. This contribution is also presented at the Conference of Van Museum as Urartu and Beyond and will be published in the conference book.
Helia Shokripour , Hamideh Saderi Osguie , Sajad Ferdowsi,
Volume 8, Issue 1 (6-2025)
Volume 8, Issue 1 (6-2025)
Abstract
Geological heritage, as a valuable part of natural heritage, requires a perspective that goes beyond technical interventions and should be based on understanding the values attributed to it. This study aims to develop a conceptual framework for geological heritage conservation grounded in a value-led management approach. To achieve this, through logical reasoning and a review of relevant theoretical literature, key concepts such as value, significance, cognitive dissonance theory, and principles of value-based management were examined. The findings indicate that geological heritage encompasses a set of scientific, aesthetic, cultural, ecological, educational, and economic values, which together shape its perceived importance. Since a gap often exists between stakeholders’ attitudes toward the significance of this heritage and their actual behaviors, the theory of cognitive dissonance is employed to identify and analyze these discrepancies. Accordingly, the proposed framework introduces three core principles of value-led management—clarifying, communicating, and aligning values—as strategic mechanisms to reduce cognitive dissonance and enhance coherence among various stakeholders, including local communities, tourists, and experts. In this framework, conservation is not merely a physical act but a process shaped by value-based, cognitive, and behavioral interactions. This perspective is particularly effective for complex and multifaceted domains such as geological heritage, allowing conservation efforts to be not only scientific and expert-driven but also inclusive, sustainable, and impactful. The proposed framework can serve as a foundation for policy-making, educational program design, and the enhancement of social participation in geological heritage conservation at tourism destinations.
Atefe Fazel, Vajihe Avay ,
Volume 8, Issue 1 (6-2025)
Volume 8, Issue 1 (6-2025)
Abstract
A large group of Islamic-era ceramics consists of splashed ware and sgraffito pottery, which are of significant historical and technical importance. This study aims to reconstruct the production technology of splashed ware during the Islamic period in Iran by examining its formation process and technical fabrication stages. This research seeks to answer the following questions: What was the process of splashed glaze formation in Iran? How can the technical stages of splashed glaze reconstruction be achieved based on the study of samples? To this end, 100 studied samples were examined, and 10 specimens were purposefully selected for experimental reconstruction of splashed ware. The research methodology is applied, utilizing historical analysis and experimental testing to produce samples of splashed ware ceramics. The study samples were carefully analyzed to understand the materials and manufacturing processes involved in splashed ware technology.
Ali Shahabinejad , Hadi Lookzadeh ,
Volume 8, Issue 1 (6-2025)
Volume 8, Issue 1 (6-2025)
Abstract
The timekeeping device of the Rokniyeh school complex, known as Rasad-e-vaght o saat, was built in 725 AH in the current vicinity of the Vaght-o-saat square in Yazd, at the request of Sayyed Rukn al-Din. This mechanical device was a type of tower for determining time (annual calendar) and hours (daily timekeeping) based on the gravity energy of water fluid, and it is considered a significant achievement in the history of science and technology in Iran. Although this device existed until the Timurid era and during the compilation of two important local Yazd historical books, History of Yazd and new History of Yazd, after this period, the Rokniyeh complex and its famous Rasad declined, and no trace of it has remained from the Safavid era to the present day. However, what the local history books of Yazd describe about this building indicates the grandeur, complexity, and notable technical details of this device for displaying times and hours. With regard to the importance of this device, numerous researchers have referred to it in their studies, but this device had not been recreated until now, and no image or document of its appearance and functional components had been prepared. For this reason, in 2022, the project for the recreation of this device was undertaken with the support of the Yazd Regional Water Company, and it was completed in 2024 through the joint cooperation of Mazdabad Company and Yazd University. In the recreation of this device, for the first time, the overall appearance of the device along with all its main functional elements was recreated, and the operational mechanism of each component of the clock for displaying times and hours, including the wooden wheel, day and night hour houses, the ball and cymbal and pot mechanism, the minaret of metal sign, and the rooster minaret, has been shown. In addition, a small-scale replica of this device, capable of displaying all the main functions of the clock in accordance with its historical mechanism, has been built and is displayed at the Yazd Water Museum. This article present a description of the research process and the recreation of the device, along with explanations of the functioning of the chronological elements in this clock, while also introducing the historical documentation of the research.
Aminallah Kamali,
Volume 8, Issue 1 (6-2025)
Volume 8, Issue 1 (6-2025)
Abstract
Yazd Province, with its diverse mineral resources and long history of metallurgical activities from prehistoric to contemporary times, is considered one of the primary centers of ancient metalworking in the Central Iranian Plateau. The Dehneh Lashkar metal smelting site, located near Robat Posht-Badam village, was identified during regional geological surveys and studied for the first time. From this site, covering an area of 140 square meters, 10 slag samples were collected, with 4 samples subjected to petrographic analysis and 4 samples analyzed chemically using ICP-OES. The examined samples exhibited distinct macroscopic characteristics, including dark green to black coloration, irregular morphology, porous to dense textures, and dimensions ranging from 2 to 7 cm. Petrographic studies revealed that the slags primarily consist of fayalite (Fe₂SiO₄), pyroxene, and glassy phases, with spinifex and porphyritic textures indicative of rapid cooling and incomplete melt crystallization. Polished section analyses further confirmed the presence of copper sulfide phases, including bornite (Cu₅FeS₄), covellite (CuS), and native copper (Cu) within the slags. Chemical analyses indicated an average copper concentration of 1.96 wt% and zinc concentration of 0.88 wt%, suggesting the use of Cu-Pb-Zn polymetallic ores as the primary raw material. The average calcium oxide (CaO) content of 24 wt% points to the use of carbonate rocks (likely limestone and dolomite) as fluxes to adjust viscosity and lower the melting temperature. The chemical composition of the slags suggests an average smelting temperature of 1100–1200°C, consistent with the use of siliceous and carbonate fluxes to enhance metal separation. This study provides evidence of an ancient metalworking industry at the site based on petrographic and chemical analyses of the slags. The main research questions addressed the types of metals extracted and the metallurgical processes employed. Based on the findings, the site was primarily exploited for copper extraction. Although insufficient surface evidence was available for precise dating, petrographic and chemical studies indicate the use of advanced metallurgical technologies capable of achieving temperatures of 1100–1200°C and employing combined siliceous-carbonate flux systems to optimize the reduction and metal separation processes.
Orineb Nazarian , Mohammad Mortezayi , Arman Shishegar , Reza Shabanisamghabadi ,
Volume 8, Issue 2 (9-2025)
Volume 8, Issue 2 (9-2025)
Abstract
Coins are among the most significant archaeological and historical data, which—beyond their economic value-can play a crucial role in resolving historical ambiguities, understanding economic conditions, political structures, and even trade and cultural relations of the studied period. Through systematic analysis, coins also provide precise scientific information regarding production processes and the technological capabilities embedded in their structure. Among these, gold coins hold a special status due to their high material value, durability, and resistance to corrosion.
During the Ilkhanid period-one of the most pivotal historical eras in Iran-this study aims to conduct detailed and systematic field, laboratory, and archaeometric investigations on three selected samples from a collection of 105 gold coins attributed to Sultan Abu Sa'id Bahadur, discovered in the Jameh Mosque of Tabriz and currently housed in the National Museum of Iran. To authenticate the historical identity of the samples, the external surface of the coins was first examined through documentation procedures including weighing, dimensional measurements, and photography. Iconographic and epigraphic readings were conducted to identify minting details and inscriptions. The coins under study date back to the reign of Abu Sa'id Bahadur (716–736 AH), with minting dates ranging from 724 to 729 AH. Weight measurements revealed that the coins deviate from the standard weight norms of the period. Surface analysis showed that the coins fall into the category of geometrically patterned coins. Two samples (Registry Nos. 12530 and 12546) feature common circular and square-in-circle motifs. The third sample (Registry No. 12544) displays an innovative design with a Quranic verse (Surah 2:137) inscribed around the edge, framed in a mihrab-like structure, along with the names of the four Sunni caliphs—emphasizing religious themes. The reverse side features an octagonal geometric pattern filled with Quranic phrases, with inscriptions referring to victory over enemies. Table 1 presents detailed information on the minting location, date, weight, imagery, and design of the three studied coins. In the second phase, elemental analysis was conducted to obtain microstructural and chemical composition data. Given the importance of non-destructive laboratory methods for identifying the elemental structure of coin metals, PIXE (Proton-Induced X-ray Emission) was employed. This powerful technique enables the detection of major and trace elements as well as impurities. PIXE allows for high-resolution analysis of microstructures and is capable of identifying a wide range of elements from sodium to uranium under optimal conditions. However, like XRF, its main limitation is surface -level analysis.
Since impurity levels significantly affect the purity grade of gold coins, the elemental composition of the samples was analyzed, and the results were interpreted based on the concentration of metallic impurities. Statistical analysis focused on purity variations across coins from three different mints. PIXE utilizes micron-scale proton beams for high-precision, multi-elemental analysis. Under suitable conditions, the minimum detectable concentration ranges from 0.01 ppm to 11 ppm. Although PIXE offers deeper analytical penetration (up to several millimeters with high-energy protons), its standard depth (~70 microns) is generally less than that of XRF (~100 microns). Corrosion and sample heterogeneity may introduce uncertainty in elemental analysis, especially in copper or bronze coins.
The three coin samples were analyzed using the accelerator and endograph facilities at the Physics and Accelerator Research Center of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran. The elemental composition of major and minor elements-including Fe, Ni, Cu, Ag, Au, Al, Si, K, Ca, and Ti—was determined with a precision range of 10-100 ppm. Based on the obtained data, the primary microstructure, purity level, and the highest impurity concentrations among the samples were identified. Following the acquisition of analytical data, quantitative analysis of major and minor elements, microstructures, and impurities was performed. Impurity elements were statistically processed using SPSS software through descriptive and inferential methods. To ensure high accuracy, differences in descriptive indices were evaluated using post-hoc tests such as Tukey’s test. The final results are based on impurity concentration data and provide valuable insights into the metallurgical composition and purity of the studied coins.
During the Ilkhanid period-one of the most pivotal historical eras in Iran-this study aims to conduct detailed and systematic field, laboratory, and archaeometric investigations on three selected samples from a collection of 105 gold coins attributed to Sultan Abu Sa'id Bahadur, discovered in the Jameh Mosque of Tabriz and currently housed in the National Museum of Iran. To authenticate the historical identity of the samples, the external surface of the coins was first examined through documentation procedures including weighing, dimensional measurements, and photography. Iconographic and epigraphic readings were conducted to identify minting details and inscriptions. The coins under study date back to the reign of Abu Sa'id Bahadur (716–736 AH), with minting dates ranging from 724 to 729 AH. Weight measurements revealed that the coins deviate from the standard weight norms of the period. Surface analysis showed that the coins fall into the category of geometrically patterned coins. Two samples (Registry Nos. 12530 and 12546) feature common circular and square-in-circle motifs. The third sample (Registry No. 12544) displays an innovative design with a Quranic verse (Surah 2:137) inscribed around the edge, framed in a mihrab-like structure, along with the names of the four Sunni caliphs—emphasizing religious themes. The reverse side features an octagonal geometric pattern filled with Quranic phrases, with inscriptions referring to victory over enemies. Table 1 presents detailed information on the minting location, date, weight, imagery, and design of the three studied coins. In the second phase, elemental analysis was conducted to obtain microstructural and chemical composition data. Given the importance of non-destructive laboratory methods for identifying the elemental structure of coin metals, PIXE (Proton-Induced X-ray Emission) was employed. This powerful technique enables the detection of major and trace elements as well as impurities. PIXE allows for high-resolution analysis of microstructures and is capable of identifying a wide range of elements from sodium to uranium under optimal conditions. However, like XRF, its main limitation is surface -level analysis.
Since impurity levels significantly affect the purity grade of gold coins, the elemental composition of the samples was analyzed, and the results were interpreted based on the concentration of metallic impurities. Statistical analysis focused on purity variations across coins from three different mints. PIXE utilizes micron-scale proton beams for high-precision, multi-elemental analysis. Under suitable conditions, the minimum detectable concentration ranges from 0.01 ppm to 11 ppm. Although PIXE offers deeper analytical penetration (up to several millimeters with high-energy protons), its standard depth (~70 microns) is generally less than that of XRF (~100 microns). Corrosion and sample heterogeneity may introduce uncertainty in elemental analysis, especially in copper or bronze coins.
The three coin samples were analyzed using the accelerator and endograph facilities at the Physics and Accelerator Research Center of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran. The elemental composition of major and minor elements-including Fe, Ni, Cu, Ag, Au, Al, Si, K, Ca, and Ti—was determined with a precision range of 10-100 ppm. Based on the obtained data, the primary microstructure, purity level, and the highest impurity concentrations among the samples were identified. Following the acquisition of analytical data, quantitative analysis of major and minor elements, microstructures, and impurities was performed. Impurity elements were statistically processed using SPSS software through descriptive and inferential methods. To ensure high accuracy, differences in descriptive indices were evaluated using post-hoc tests such as Tukey’s test. The final results are based on impurity concentration data and provide valuable insights into the metallurgical composition and purity of the studied coins.
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