Knowledge of Conservation and Restoration

Application of the Metaverse in relation to cultural heritage requirements based on international documents and conventions

MINOU GHAREHBAGLOU

Historic urban fabrics and architectural heritage are subject to a wide range of international charters and conventions that establish guiding principles for conservation, restoration, documentation, reconstruction, and cultural tourism. Foundational documents such as the Venice Charter, the Nara Document on Authenticity, UNESCO conventions, and the Burra Charter emphasize concepts including authenticity, integrity, accurate documentation, and the responsible use of heritage resources. In practice, however, the implementation of these principles has become increasingly complex due to factors such as physical deterioration, natural hazards, restricted accessibility, and the growing pressures of mass tourism.
In recent years, advances in immersive digital technologies have introduced alternative approaches to addressing these challenges. Among them, the Metaverse understood as a three-dimensional digital environment integrating Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) has gained attention as a platform for experiencing, documenting, and interpreting cultural heritage. Unlike conventional visualization or presentation tools, Metaverse-based environments allow users to engage with heritage spaces interactively and remotely, often through digital avatars, thereby expanding possibilities for access and interpretation beyond physical constraints.
Although immersive technologies have been increasingly employed in heritage-related projects, their relationship with the normative frameworks defined by international heritage documents has not been sufficiently examined. Existing studies tend to focus on technical capabilities or user experience, while questions of compatibility with established conservation principles remain underexplored. This study seeks to address this gap by examining how Metaverse-related capabilities correspond to the requirements articulated in international charters and conventions concerning historic environments.

Analysis and Criticism of Ethical Principles in Contemporary Theory of Monument Conservation with a Deconstructive Approach

Sahar Rastegar Zhaleh

The idea behind the principle of sustainability - which has shaped the entire body of contemporary conservation ethics- is to consider future users when making decisions and interventions. This principle tries to prevent extreme decisions based on taste and prejudice or interventions based on current knowledge. Ethical principles such as "reversibility" and "least intervention" have been shaped by different theoretical approaches and are widely used in conservation literature today. However, these fundamental principles, as influential variables in ethical and technical decision-making, have become a subject of debate and criticism in contemporary conservation thought. The aim of the present study is to address these criticisms from the perspective of sustainability in contemporary conservation by using the method of "deconstruction". Deconstruction is a critical thinking that examines variables in detail with the aim of showing gaps and contradictions. Having a critical approach means examining the causal relationships of issues and revealing what has remained hidden. Therefore, deconstruction does not want to destroy the truth, but rather restores it. Therefore, this research aims to reveal challenges such as the "subject of conservation", "reasons", "objectives" and "method" that have made the ethical principles of conservation contradictory, opaque and sometimes impossible, and also to criticize and deconstruct the principles that were accepted as axiomatic and unquestionable in classical conservation, trying to denaturalize what has always been natural. The present study has gone to the deconstructionist approach in order to examine the criticisms because it believes that with the deconstructionist approach, firstly, the real thing or, in other words, the "thing in itself" in the sense of pure truth, independent of human perception and senses, does not exist; secondly, theorists such as Marcuse (1988) and Nietzsche (1992) believe that what is known as truth within a culture is a form of communication and social peace contract between people. All moral standards are created by specific conditions (such as culture) and are solely related to these conditions. In this thinking, awareness of indeterminacy and uncertainty is the most real characteristic and truest characteristic of cultural and artistic phenomena. An issue in which moral standards and valuation do not remain in the monopoly of fixed principles and predetermined functions and roles and do not accept a fixed definition, but rather act as a fluid and changing factor in their cultural and situational context. The result is that contemporary ethics, with greater flexibility. Ethics are not applied as static and mechanical principles at the time of intervention, but are prepared to face unpredictable behavior by "adaptation" and "compatibility" and are considered as added values, that is, they are not mandatory in any case and can be ignored depending on the circumstances. Ethical principles and criteria such as minimal intervention, reversibility in interventions, similarity of materials and conservation techniques to the original part.

Application of Sol-Gel Technology in the Conservation and Restoration of Cultural Heritage

Somayeh Noghani

In recent decades, sol-gel technology has attracted considerable attention in the conservation and restoration of cultural heritage as a nanotechnology-based approach. Features such as the production of organic-inorganic nanocomposites, suitable penetration into porous substrates, formation of thin protective coatings, and resistance to moisture and ultraviolet radiation have expanded its applications in conservation studies. This review examines the capabilities and limitations of sol-gel technology in stone consolidation, protective coatings for historical materials, and environmental monitoring sensors. The reviewed studies indicate that alkoxysilane-based compounds improve the structural cohesion of historical stones and reduce moisture penetration. In addition, sol-gel coatings have shown promising results in protecting metals, glass, tiles, and paper against corrosion, weathering, and microbial growth. Sol-gel-based sensors have also been applied for monitoring humidity, acidity, pollutants, and light in museum environments. Despite these advances, further long-term studies remain necessary.

Tracing Tutia Production in Southeastern Iran: Chemical and Mineralogical Studies of Ceramic Nails Associated with Metallurgical Activities Using Petrographic and ICP-OES Analyses

Farzad Mafi

Owing to its vast and rich mineral resources, the Kerman region is regarded as one of the most significant areas for the identification and extraction of metals in Iran. The city of Bam, located in the southeastern part of this province, has long served as a strategic center linking southeastern Iran with Sistan due to its distinctive geological and geomorphological conditions. Archaeological surveys conducted in the central district of Bam County during 2018–2019 aimed to identify ancient mining areas and metallurgical smelting centers. Drawing upon the results of these field investigations, the present study undertakes chemical and mineralogical laboratory analyses of four ceramic nail samples recovered from four areas associated with metallurgical activities. These analyses were carried out to determine the function of the ceramic nails and to investigate the extraction processes involved. The studied samples were examined through petrographic and geochemical analyses using the ICP-OES method across the four identified sites. Petrographic examination of the ceramic nails indicates high firing temperatures during manufacture and reveals a porphyritic texture containing predominantly igneous inclusions as temper materials. The results of the chemical analyses demonstrate that approximately 72% of the chemical composition of these ceramic nails consists of zinc, thereby confirming the intentional extraction of this metal. The existence of sufficient technological knowledge for the oxidation of zinc and the production of Tutia (zinc oxide) at these sites may indicate the emergence of one of the most sophisticated and technologically advanced metallurgical extraction processes in the ancient world. The analytical results obtained from the ceramic nails recovered from several of these sites further suggest that they were specifically employed in the extraction and production of zinc oxide (Tutia).

Investigation of the Ancient Chah Jamal Khoshomang Metal Smelting Site in Yazd Province Based on Geochemical and Mineralogical Studies

Amin Allah Kamali

The Chah Jamal Khoshomang metal smelting sites are located in Yazd Province, in the Kharanaq district east of Ardakan County, approximately 25 km south of Saghand village and 120 km from the city of Yazd. This study aims to identify the smelting technology and the provenance of the ores used at these sites through field investigations, petrographic analysis, and chemical analysis by inductively (ICP-OES) of slag samples collected from two smelting sites. Petrographic results reveal the presence of the silicate minerals pyroxene and fayalite within a glassy matrix, together with metallic phases comprising native copper, copper sulfide minerals (chalcocite and covellite), and the iron-bearing mineral wüstite. The high proportions of silica and iron oxides in the chemical analysis results, together with the presence of CaO and MgO, indicate the use of siliceous and carbonate fluxes to reduce slag viscosity; combined with the observed mineralogical assemblage, this evidence suggests a smelting temperature of approximately 11001200 °C and a reducing, relatively controlled furnace atmosphere. These smelting sites, which were established for copper extraction, also contain lead, zinc, and silver, indicating that the raw ore feeding these furnaces was derived from a polymetallic deposit. Regarding the provenance of this raw material, ancient exploratory tunnels and pits located approximately two kilometers from the sites can be identified as the local source of feedstock for these furnaces. The findings of this study advance our understanding of ancient metal extraction technology in the central Iranian plateau.

Investigating land subsidence and its changes within the Persepolis and Naqsh-e Rostam World Cultural Heritage Site

Masoome Amighpey

Persepolis is a symbol of the glory and grandeur of ancient Iran. Persepolis is located next to the Marvdasht Plain and at the foot of Mount Rahmat in Fars Province, located in the city of Marvdasht, Iran. Unfortunately, the excessive extraction of groundwater in the Marvdasht Plain to provide water for agriculture has caused subsidence in this plain. Considering the importance of protecting ancient and historical monuments, it is important to investigate the extent of subsidence of the Marvdasht Plain within the Persepolis and Naqsh-e Rostam World Cultural Heritage Site in order to assess its impact on possible damage to this site. Calculations indicate widespread subsidence of the Marvdasht Plain with a maximum rate of 22.6 cm per year. Also, the results of the calculations indicate the expansion of subsidence of the Marvdasht Plain towards Persepolis and Naqsh-e Rostam in recent years. On the other hand, changes in the subsidence rate near these ancient monuments are significant. In order to preserve and protect these valuable ancient monuments, measures to combat the destructive effects of subsidence on them and sustainable management of the region's groundwater resources are proposed to prevent the subsidence of the Marvdasht Plain.

Microscopic Paleoparasitological Analysis of Iron Age Burials from Shahne-Pushteh, Iran

Mayada aliky

Over the past two decades, paleoparasitological research in Iran has expanded significantly in both scale and scope. Despite this progress, investigations across the Iranian Plateau have faced ongoing challenges, and relatively few findings have been published. One major limiting factor is the extensive degradation of biological micro-remains caused by the region’s prevailing climatic conditions, which are generally unfavorable for preservation at most archaeological sites. Notably, the most significant discoveries have come from exceptional preservation contexts, such as the Chehrabad salt mine in Zanjan, renowned for the discovery of the Salt Men mummies, has yielded a wealth of well-preserved biological materials. The high salinity and stable temperatures at the site have created ideal conditions for the survival of delicate micro-remains over millennia. These rare cases emphasize the importance of focusing excavations in environments more conducive to organic preservation. More recently, excavations at Shahne-Pushteh an Iron Age burial site revealed human skeletal remains, presenting a rare opportunity to analyze soil sediment samples microscopically from around the bones. The goal was to detect parasitic remains as indicators of health, hygiene, and diet among the site's ancient population.
Although no definitive internal parasite remains were found, several nematode larvae, mites, and a single palynomorph resembling an Ascaris sp. egg were observed. While not conclusive evidence of intestinal parasitism, these findings highlight the taphonomic processes that affect micro-remains. They also underscore the crucial role of environmental and soil conditions in the preservation of biological material in archaeological contexts.